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tecs did not generally interfere in local affairs as long as the tax payments were made and the local elites participated willingly such compliance was secured by establishing and maintaining a network of elites related through intermarriage and different forms of exchange 83 nevertheless the expansion of the empire was accomplished through military control of frontier zones in strategic provinces where a much more direct approach to conquest and control was taken such strategic provinces were often exempt from taxation the aztecs even invested in those areas by maintaining a permanent military presence installing puppet rulers or even moving entire populations from the center to maintain a loyal base of support 84 in this way the aztec system of government distinguished between different strategies of control in the outer regions of the empire far from the core in the valley of mexico some provinces were treated as subject provinces which provided the basis for economic stability for the empire and strategic provinces which were the basis for further expansion 85 although the form of government is often referred to as an empire most areas within the empire were organized as city states known as altepetl in nahuatl these were small polities ruled by a hereditary leader tlatoani from a legitimate noble dynasty the early aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepetl even after the confederation of the triple alliance was formed in 1427 and began its expansion through conquest the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level the efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire s hegemonic form of control 86 economy agriculture and subsistence cultivation of maize the main foodstuff using simple tools florentine codex like all mesoamerican peoples aztec society was organized around maize agriculture the humid environment in the valley of mexico with its many lakes and swamps permitted intensive agriculture the main crops in addition to maize were beans squashes chilies and amaranth particularly important for agricultural production in the valley was the construction of chinampas on the lake artificial islands that allowed the conversion of the shallow waters into highly fertile gardens that could be cultivated year round chinampas are human made extensions of agricultural land created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake and plant matter and other vegetation these raised beds were separated by narrow canals which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land and yielded on average seven crops annually based on current chinampa yields it has been estimated that one hectare 2 5 acres of chinampa would feed 20 individuals and 9 000 hectares 22 000 acres of chinampas could feed 180 000 87 the aztecs further intensified agricultural production by constructing systems of artificial irrigation while most of the farming occurred outside the densely populated areas within the cities there was another method of small scale farming each family had a garden plot where they grew maize fruits herbs medicines and other important plants when the city of tenochtitlan became a major urban center water was supplied to the city through aqueducts from springs on the banks of the lake and they organized a system that collected human waste for use as fertilizer through intensive agriculture the aztecs were able to sustain a large urbanized population the lake was also a rich source of proteins in the form of aquatic animals such as fish amphibians shrimp insects and insect eggs and waterfowl the presence of such varied sources of protein meant that there was little use for domestic animals for meat only turkeys and dogs were kept and scholars have calculated that there was no shortage of protein among the inhabitants of the valley of mexico 88 further information on the land distance measure tlalcuahuitl crafts and trades typical aztec black on orange ceramic ware the excess supply of food products allowed a significant portion of the aztec population to dedicate themselves to trades other than food production apart from taking care of domestic food production women weaved textiles from agave fibers and cotton men also engaged in craft specializations such as the production of ceramics and obsidian and flint tools and of luxury goods such as beadwork featherwork and the elaboration of tools and musical instruments sometimes entire calpollis specialized in a single craft and in some archeological sites large neighborhoods have been found where only a single craft specialty was practiced 89 90 the aztecs did not produce much metalwork but did have knowledge of basic smelting technology for gold and they combined gold with precious stones such as jade and turquoise copper products were generally imported from the tarascans of michoacan 91 trade and distribution diorama model of the aztec market at tlatelolco products were distributed through a network of markets some markets specialized in a single commodity e g the dog market of acolman and other general markets with the presence of many different goods markets were highly organized with a system of supervisors taking care that only authorized merchants were permitted to sell their goods and punishing those who cheated their customers or sold substandard or counterfeit goods a typical town would have a weekly market every five days while larger cities held markets every day cortés reported that the central market of tlatelolco tenochtitlan s sister city was visited by 60 000 people daily some sellers in the markets were petty vendors farmers might sell some of their produce potters sold their vessels and so on other vendors were professional merchants who traveled from market to market seeking profits 92 the pochteca were specialized long distance merchants organized into exclusive guilds they made long expeditions to all parts of mesoamerica bringing back exotic luxury goods and they served as the judges and supervisors of the tlatelolco market although the economy of aztec mexico was commercialized in its use of money markets and merchants land and labor were not generally commodities for sale though some types of land could be sold between nobles 93 in the commercial sector of the economy several types of money were in regular use 94 small purchases were made with cacao beans which had to be imported from lowland areas in aztec marketplaces a small rabbit was worth 30 beans a turkey egg cost three beans and a tamal cost a single bean for larger purchases standardized lengths of cotton cloth called quachtli were used there were different grades of quachtli ranging in value from 65 to 300 cacao beans about 20 quachtli could support a commoner for one year in tenochtitlan 95 taxation a folio from the codex mendoza showing the tribute paid to tenochtitlan in exotic trade goods by the altepetl of xoconochco on the pacific coast another form of distribution of goods was through the payment of taxes when an altepetl was conquered the victor imposed a yearly tax usually paid in the form of whichever local product was most valuable or treasured several pages from the codex mendoza list subject towns along with the goods they supplied which included not only luxuries such as feathers adorned suits and greenstone beads but more practical goods such as cloth firewood and food taxes were usually paid twice or four times a year at differing times 25 archaeological excavations in the aztec ruled provinces show that incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits for provincial peoples on the positive side the empire promoted commerce and trade and exotic goods from obsidian to bronze managed to reach the houses of both commoners and nobles trade partners also included the enemy purépecha also known as tarascans a source of bronze tools and jewelry on the negative side imperial taxes imposed a burden on commoner households who had to increase their work to pay their share of taxes nobles on the other hand often made out well under the imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization the empire had to rely on local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintaining order and keeping the tax revenue flowing 96 urbanism aztec society combined a relatively simple agrarian rural tradition with the development of a truly urbanized society with a complex system of institutions specializations and hierarchies the urban tradition in mesoamerica was developed during the classic period with major urban centers such as teotihuacan with a population well above 100 000 and at the time of the rise of the aztecs the urban tradition was ingrained in mesoamerican society with urban centers serving major religious political and economic functions for the entire population 97 mexico tenochtitlan main article mexico tenochtitlan map of the island city of tenochtitlan mexico tenochtitlan urban standard centro cultural de españa archaeological site the capital city of the aztec empire was tenochtitlan now the site of modern day mexico city built on a series of islets in lake texcoco the city plan was based on a symmetrical layout that was divided into four city sections called campan directions tenochtitlan was built according to a fixed plan and centered on the ritual precinct where the great pyramid of tenochtitlan rose 50 meters 160 ft above the city houses were made of wood and loam and roofs were made of reed although pyramids temples and palaces were generally made of stone the city was interlaced with canals which were useful for transportation anthropologist eduardo noguera estimated the population at 200 000 based on the house count and merging the population of tlatelolco once an independent city but later became a suburb of tenochtitlan 87 if one includes the surrounding islets and shores surrounding lake texcoco estimates range from 300 000 to 700 000 inhabitants michael e smith gives a somewhat smaller figure of 212 500 inhabitants of tenochtitlan based on an area of 1 350 hectares 3 300 acres and a population density of 157 inhabitants per hectare 60 acre the second largest city in the valley of mexico in the aztec period was texcoco with some 25 000 inhabitants dispersed over 450 hectares 1 100 acres 98 the center of tenochtitlan was the sacred precinct a walled off square area that housed the great temple temples for other deities the ballcourt the calmecac a school for nobles a skull rack tzompantli displaying the skulls of sacrificial victims houses of the warrior orders and a merchants palace around the sacred precinct were the royal palaces built by the tlatoanis 99 the great temple great temple in historic center of mexico city the centerpiece of tenochtitlan was the templo mayor the great temple a large stepped pyramid with a double staircase leading up to two twin shrines one dedicated to tlaloc the other to huitzilopochtli this was where most of the human sacrifices were carried out during the ritual festivals and the bodies of sacrificial victims were thrown down the stairs the temple was enlarged in several stages and most of the aztec rulers made a point of adding a further stage each with a new dedication and inauguration the temple has been excavated in the center of mexico city and the rich dedicatory offerings are displayed in the museum of the templo mayor 100 archeologist eduardo matos moctezuma in his essay symbolism of the templo mayor posits that the orientation of the temple is indicative of the totality of the vision the mexica had of the universe cosmovision he states that the principal center or navel where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect that is the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the underworld begin and the four directions of the universe originate is the templo mayor of tenochtitlan matos moctezuma supports his supposition by claiming that the temple acts as an embodiment of a living myth where all sacred power is concentrated and where all the levels intersect 101 102 other major city states other major aztec cities were some of the previous city state centers around the lake including tenayuca azcapotzalco texcoco colhuacan tlacopan chapultepec coyoacan xochimilco and chalco in the puebla valley cholula was the largest city with the largest pyramid temple in mesoamerica while the confederacy of tlaxcala consisted of four smaller cities in morelos cuahnahuac was a major city of the nahuatl speaking tlahuica tribe and tollocan in the toluca valley was the capital of the matlatzinca tribe which included nahuatl speakers as well as speakers of otomi and the language today called matlatzinca most aztec cities had a similar layout with a central plaza with a major pyramid with two staircases and a double temple oriented toward the west 97 religion main article aztec religion nahuas metaphysics centers around teotl a single dynamic vivifying eternally self generating and self regenerating sacred power energy or force 103 this is conceptualized in a kind of monistic pantheism 104 as manifest in the supreme god ometeotl 105 as well as a large pantheon of lesser gods and idealizations of natural phenomena such as stars and fire 106 priests and educated upper classes held more monistic views while the popular religion of the uneducated tended to embrace the polytheistic and mythological aspects 107 in common with many other indigenous mesoamerican civilizations the aztecs put great ritual emphasis on calendrics and scheduled festivals government ceremonies and even war around key transition dates in the aztec calendar public ritual practices could involve food storytelling and dance as well as ceremonial warfare the mesoamerican ballgame and human sacrifice as a manner of payment for or even effecting the continuation of the days and the cycle of life 108 109 deities main article list of aztec gods and supernatural beings the deity tezcatlipoca depicted in the codex borgia one of the few extant pre hispanic codices the four main deities worshiped by the aztecs were tlaloc huitzilopochtli quetzalcoatl and tezcatlipoca tlaloc is a rain and storm deity huitzilopochtli a solar and martial deity and the tutelary deity of the mexica tribe quetzalcoatl a wind sky and star deity and cultural hero and tezcatlipoca a deity of the night magic prophecy and fate the great temple in tenochtitlan had two shrines on its top one dedicated to tlaloc the other to huitzilopochtli the two shrines represented two sacred mountains the left one was tonacatepetl the hill of sustenance whose patron god was tlaloc and the right one was coatepec whose patron god was huitzilopochtli 110 quetzalcoatl and tezcatlipoca each had separate temples within the religious precinct close to the great temple and the high priests of the great temple were name...
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