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kept silesia 41 oceania edit main article history of oceania van diemen s land in 1852 interest in the geography of the southern hemisphere began to increase in the 18th century 42 in 1642 dutch navigator abel tasman was commissioned to explore the southern hemisphere during his voyages tasman discovered the island of van diemen s land which was later named tasmania the australian coast and new zealand in 1644 43 captain james cook was commissioned in 1768 to observe a solar eclipse in tahiti and sailed into stingray harbor on australia s east coast in 1770 claiming the land for the british crown 44 settlements in australia began in 1788 when britain began to utilize the country for the deportation of convicts 45 with the first free settles arriving in 1793 46 likewise new zealand became a home for hunters seeking whales and seals in the 1790s with later non commercial settlements by the scottish in the 1820s and 1830s 47 modern era edit main article modern era revolutionary waves edit main article age of revolution the atlantic revolutions were a revolutionary wave in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries it took place in both the americas and europe following the age of enlightenment ideas critical of absolutist monarchies began to spread spreading liberalism the first of these was the corsican revolution 1755 1769 which led to the first modern constitution and lead to female suffrage inspired by the thought of jean jacques rousseau in the american revolution 1765 1783 american colonies of the british empire rose against taxation without representation and declared that all men are created equal other revolutions included the geneva revolution of 1782 revolt of dutch patriots 1785 liège revolution 1789 1795 brabant revolution 1790 haitian revolution 1791 1804 batavian revolution 1795 slave revolt in curaçao 1795 fédon s rebellion 1796 scottish rebellion 1797 irish rebellion 1798 helvetic revolution 1798 and altamuran revolution 1799 1811 german coast uprising 1811 and the norwegian war of independence 1814 there were smaller upheavals in switzerland russia and brazil the revolutionaries in each country knew of the others and to some degree were inspired by or emulated them 48 the french revolutionary wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the french revolution they pitted france against great britain the holy roman empire prussia russia and several other monarchies they are divided in two periods the war of the first coalition 1792 1797 and the war of the second coalition 1798 1802 initially confined to europe the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension after a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy france had conquered territories in the italian peninsula the low countries and the rhineland in europe and was retroceded louisiana in north america french success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of europe the french colonial empire was the second largest empire in the world behind the british empire the coup of 18 brumaire brought general napoleon bonaparte to power as first consul of france and in the view of most historians ended the french revolution the napoleonic wars 1803 1815 were a series of major conflicts pitting the french empire and its allies led by napoleon i against a fluctuating array of european powers formed into various coalitions it produced a brief period of french domination over most of continental europe the wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the french revolution and its resultant conflict the wars are often categorised into five conflicts each termed after the coalition that fought napoleon the third coalition 1805 the fourth 1806 07 the fifth 1809 the sixth 1813 14 and the seventh 1815 the peninsular war with france which resulted from the napoleonic occupation of spain caused spanish creoles in spanish america to question their allegiance to spain stoking independence movements that culminated in various spanish american wars of independence 1808 1833 which were primarily fought between opposing groups of colonists and only secondarily against spanish forces at the same time the portuguese monarchy relocated to brazil during portugal s french occupation after the royal court returned to lisbon the prince regent pedro remained in brazil and in 1822 successfully declared himself emperor of a newly independent brazilian empire revolutions during the 1820s included the carbonari in italy the trienio liberal in spain the liberal revolution of 1820 in the kingdom of portugal the greek war of independence and the decembrist revolt in the russian empire followed by these the revolutions of 1830 were an included the belgian revolution in the united kingdom of the netherlands the july revolution in france the november uprising in the congress poland and the ustertag in switzerland the revolutions of 1848 in turn were the most widespread revolutionary wave in european history they included the march revolution french revolution german revolutions the revolutions in the italian states greater poland uprising march unrest revolutions in the austrian empire praieira revolt revolution in luxembourg moldavian revolution wallachian revolution chartism and the young ireland rebellion great power competition edit inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the outcome of the congress of vienna the italian unification process was precipitated by the revolutions of 1848 it reached completion in 1871 when the papal states were captured and rome was officially designated the capital of the kingdom of italy 49 50 after the franco prussian war of 1870 71 prussia under otto von bismarck brought together almost all the german states excluding the austrian empire luxembourg and liechtenstein into a new german empire bismarck s new empire became the most powerful state in continental europe until 1914 51 52 meanwhile britain had entered an era of splendid isolation avoiding entanglements that had led it into the crimean war in 1854 1856 it concentrated on internal industrial development and political reform and building up its great international holdings the british empire while maintaining by far the world s strongest navy to protect its island home and its many overseas possessions comparison of africa in the years 1880 and 1913 the berlin conference of 1884 which regulated european colonization and trade in africa is usually accepted as the beginning of the scramble for africa in the last quarter of the 19th century there were considerable political rivalries among the empires of the european continent leading to the african continent being partitioned without wars between european nations as late as the 1870s europeans controlled approximately 10 of the african continent with all their territories located near the coasts the most important holdings were angola and mozambique held by portugal the cape colony held by great britain and algeria held by france by 1914 only ethiopia and liberia remained independent of european control with the latter having strong connections to the united states 53 in the spanish american war of 1898 the united states intervened in the cuban war of independence leading it to emerge as the predominant power in the caribbean region 54 and resulting in u s acquisition of spain s pacific possessions it also led to united states involvement in the philippine revolution and later to the philippine american war the banana wars were a series of conflicts that consisted of military occupation police action and intervention by the united states in central america and the caribbean following the end of the spanish american war in 1898 after which the united states proceeded to conduct military interventions in cuba panama nicaragua mexico haiti and the dominican republic world wars edit world war i and aftermath edit main articles world war i and interwar period world war i saw the continent of europe split into two major opposing alliances the allied powers primarily composed of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland the united states france the russian empire italy japan portugal and the many aforementioned balkan states such as the kingdom of serbia and montenegro and the central powers primarily composed of the german empire the austro hungarian empire the ottoman empire and bulgaria though serbia was defeated in the serbian campaign of 1915 and romania joined the allied powers in 1916 only to be defeated in 1917 none of the great powers were knocked out of the war until 1918 the 1917 february revolution in russia replaced the russian empire with the provisional government but continuing discontent with the cost of the war led to the october revolution the creation of the soviet socialist republic and the signing of the treaty of brest litovsk by the new government in march 1918 ending russia s involvement in the war one by one the central powers quit first bulgaria september 29 then the ottoman empire october 31 and the austro hungarian empire november 3 with its allies defeated revolution at home and the military no longer willing to fight kaiser wilhelm abdicated on 9 november and germany signed an armistice on 11 november 1918 ending the war the partitioning of the ottoman empire after the war led to the domination of the middle east by western powers such as britain and france and saw the creation of the modern arab world and the republic of turkey the league of nations mandate granted the french mandate for syria and the lebanon the british mandate for mesopotamia later iraq and the british mandate for palestine later divided into mandatory palestine and the emirate of transjordan 1921 1946 the ottoman empire s possessions in the arabian peninsula became the kingdom of hejaz which the sultanate of nejd today saudi arabia was allowed to annex and the mutawakkilite kingdom of yemen the empire s possessions on the western shores of the persian gulf were variously annexed by saudi arabia al ahsa and qatif or remained british protectorates kuwait bahrain and qatar and became the arab states of the persian gulf the revolutions of 1917 1923 included political unrest and revolts around the world inspired by the success of the russian revolution and the disorder created by the aftermath of world war i in war torn imperial russia the liberal february revolution toppled the monarchy a period of instability followed and the bolsheviks seized power during the october revolution in response to the emerging soviet union anticommunist forces from a broad assortment of ideological factions fought against the bolsheviks particularly by the counter revolutionary white movement and the peasant green armies the various nationalist movements in ukraine after the russian revolution and other would be new states like those in soviet transcaucasia and soviet central asia the anarchist inspired third russian revolution and the tambov rebellion 55 the leninist victories also inspired a surge by world communism the larger german revolution and its offspring like the bavarian soviet republic the neighbouring hungarian revolution and the biennio rosso in italy in addition to various smaller uprisings protests and strikes all of which proved abortive the bolsheviks sought to coordinate this new wave of revolution in the soviet led comintern the rise of fascism edit the conditions of economic hardship caused by the great depression brought about an international surge of social unrest in germany it contributed to the rise of the nazi party which resulted in the demise of the weimar republic and the establishment of the fascist regime nazi germany under the leadership of adolf hitler fascist movements grew in strength elsewhere in europe hungarian fascist gyula gömbös rose to power as prime minister of hungary in 1932 and attempted to entrench his party of national unity throughout the country the fascist iron guard movement in romania soared in political support after 1933 gaining representation in the romanian government and an iron guard member assassinated romanian prime minister ion duca during the 6 february 1934 crisis france faced the greatest domestic political turmoil since the dreyfus affair when the fascist francist movement and multiple far right movements rioted en masse in paris against the french government resulting in major political violence integralists marching in brazil in the americas the brazilian integralists led by plínio salgado claimed as many as 200 000 members although following coup attempts it faced a crackdown from the estado novo of getúlio vargas in 1937 in the 1930s the national socialist movement of chile gained seats in chile s parliament and attempted a coup d état that resulted in the seguro obrero massacre of 1938 world war ii edit main article world war ii world war ii is generally considered to have begun on 1 september 1939 when nazi germany under adolf hitler invaded poland the united kingdom and france subsequently declared war on germany on the 3rd under the molotov ribbentrop pact of august 1939 germany and the soviet union had partitioned poland and marked out their spheres of influence across finland romania and the baltic states from late 1939 to early 1941 in a series of campaigns and treaties germany conquered or controlled much of continental europe and formed the axis alliance with italy and japan along with other countries later on following the onset of campaigns in north africa and east africa and the fall of france in mid 1940 the war continued primarily between the european axis powers and the british empire with war in the balkans the aerial battle of britain the blitz of the uk and the battle of the atlantic on 22 june 1941 germany led the european axis powers in an invasion of the soviet union opening the eastern front the largest land theatre of war in history and trapping the axis powers crucially the german wehrmacht in a war of attrition japan which aimed to dominate asia and the pacific was at war with the republic of china by 1937 in december 1941 japan attacked american and british territories with near simultaneous offensives against southeast asia and the central pacific including an attack on the us fleet at pearl harbor which forced the us to declare war against japan the european axis powers declared war on the us in solidarity japan soon captured much of the western pacific but its advances were halted in 1942 after losing the critical battle of midway later germany and italy were defeated in north africa and at the battle of stalingrad in the soviet union key setbacks in 1943 including a series of german defeats on the eastern front the allied invasions of sicily and the italian mainland and allied offensives in the pacific cost the axis powers their initiative and forced it into strategic retreat on all fronts in 1944 the western allies invaded german occupi...
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