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乙 bao yi 報丙 bao bing 報丁 bao ding 示壬 shi ren and 示癸 shi gui there is no firm evidence of oracle bone inscriptions before the reign of wu ding according to the shiji and the mencius da ding there called tai ding died before he could ascend to the throne however in the oracle bones he receives rituals like any other king according to the shiji bu bing there called wai bing and 仲壬 zhong ren not mentioned in the oracle bones were younger brothers of dai ting and preceded da jia also known as dai jia however the mencius the zuo zhuan and the book of documents state that he reigned after da jia as also implied by the oracle bones the shiji includes a king wo ding not mentioned in the oracle bones the shiji has xiao jia as the son of da geng known as tai geng in the annals of yin but as a younger brother as implied by the oracle bones in the genealogical table of the three ages according to the historical records lü ji there called yong ji reigned before da wu there called tai wu the kings from zhong ding to nan geng are placed in the same order by the shiji and the oracle bones but there are some differences in genealogy as described in the articles on individual kings the status of qiang jia varies over the history of the oracle bones during the reigns of wu ding di yi and di xin he was not included in the main line of descent a position also held by the shiji but in the intervening reigns he was included as a direct ancestor according to the historical records nan geng was the son of qiang jia there called wo jia the oracle bones and the shiji include an older brother zu ji 祖己 who did not reign lin xin is named as a king in the shiji and oracle bones of succeeding reigns but not those of the last two kings 92 there are no ancestral sacrifices to the last two kings on the oracles bones due to the fall of shang though scant few bronze inscriptions showing sacrifice to di yi do exist their names including the character 帝 dì emperor appear more in the much later bamboo annals and shiji 93 also referred to as zhòu 紂 zhòu xīn 紂辛 or zhou wang 紂王 or by adding shang 商 in front of any of these names references edit citations edit turchin peter adams jonathan m hall thomas d december 2006 east west orientation of historical empires and modern states journal of world systems research 12 2 219 229 doi 10 5195 jwsr 2006 369 issn 1076 156x keightley 2000 keightley 1999 pp 233 235 keightley 1978b 1 2 keightley 1999 p 232 keightley 1978a p xiv keightley 1999 p 233 with additional details from the historical records schinz alfred 1996 the magic square cities in ancient china axel menges p 27 isbn 978 3 930698 02 8 xu zhuoyun 2012 china a new cultural history columbia university press p 73 isbn 978 0 231 15920 3 keightley 1999 p 233 邶 鄘二國考 archived 17 june 2011 at the wayback machine bei yong two national test 周初 三监 与邶 鄘 卫地望研究 archived 26 july 2008 at the wayback machine bei yong wei looking at the research 三监 人物疆地及其地望辨析 兼论康叔的始封地问题 archived 9 may 2011 at the wayback machine breaking ground on kangshu problem 一 被剥削者的存在类型 exploited by the presence of yao xinzhong 2000 an introduction to confucianism cambridge university press isbn 0 521 64430 5 confucius is believed to have been a descendant of the royal house of the shang dynasty and his family lived in the state of song until his grandfather was forced to move to the state of lu yao xinzhong 1997 confucianism and christianity a comparative study of jen and agape sussex academic press p 29 isbn 1 898723 76 1 rainey lee dian 2010 confucius confucianism the essentials wiley isbn 978 1 4051 8841 8 de crespigny rafe 28 december 2006 a biographical dictionary of later han to the three kingdoms 23 220 ad brill p 389 isbn 978 90 474 1184 0 汉书 杨胡朱梅云传 初 武帝时 始封周后姬嘉为周子南君 至元帝时 尊周子南君为周承休侯 位次诸侯王 使诸大夫博士求殷后 分散为十余姓 郡国往往得其大家 推求子孙 绝不能纪 时 匡衡议 以为 王者存二王后 所以尊其先王而通三统也 其犯诛绝之罪者绝 而更封他亲为始封君 上承其王者之始祖 春秋 之义 诸侯不能守其社稷者绝 今宋国已不守其统而失国矣 则宜更立殷后为始封君 而上承汤统 非当继宋之绝侯也 宜明得殷后而已 今之故宋 推求其嫡 久远不可得 虽得其嫡 嫡之先已绝 不当得立 礼记 孔子曰 丘 殷人也 先师所共传 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issn 2330 5169 lee 2002 pp 16 17 lee 2002 p 32 1 2 3 keightley 1999 p 248 pankenier 1981 1982 p 23 pankenier david w 2015 the cosmo political mandate astrology and cosmology in early china conforming earth to heaven cambridge university press p 197 isbn 978 1 107 53901 3 archived from the original on 15 september 2022 retrieved 21 july 2022 nivison 2018 p 165 lee 2002 p 28 lee 2002 pp 31 34 shaughnessy edward l 1992 the date of the zhou conquest of shang sources of western zhou history inscribed bronze vessels university of california press pp 217 236 isbn 978 0 520 07028 8 nivison david s 1983 the dates of western chou harvard journal of asiatic studies 43 2 harvard yenching institute 481 580 doi 10 2307 2719108 jstor 2719108 liu et al 2021 pp 165 169 qiu 2000 p 60 kerr gordon 2013 a short history of china oldcastle p 3 isbn 978 1 84243 969 2 beck roger b black linda krieger larry s naylor phillip c shabaka dahia ibo 1999 world history patterns of interaction evanston illinois mcdougal littell isbn 0 395 87274 x shelach gideon 1996 the qiang and the question of human sacrifice in the late shang period asian perspectives 35 1 1 26 via researchgate fang fang liao jingwen zeng xiaomin zhang juzhong november 2022 the truth of unusual deaths under military expansion evidence from the stable isotopes of a human skull ditch in the capital city of the early shang dynasty genes 13 11 2077 doi 10 3390 genes13112077 issn 2073 4425 pmc 9690788 pmid 36360314 pietrusewsky michael 2005 the physical anthropology of the pacific east asia and southeast asia a multivariate craniometric analysis in sagart laurent blench roger sanchez mazas alicia eds the peopling of east asia putting together archaeology linguistics and genetics routledge p 203 isbn 978 0 415 32242 3 howells william 1983 origins of the chinese people interpretations of recent evidence in keightley david n ed the origins of chinese civilization university of california press pp 312 313 isbn 978 0 520 04229 2 fairbank goldman 2006 p 35 sun 1989 pp 161 167 chen 2002 pp 67 71 thorp 1981 pp 239 240 thorp 1981 pp 240 245 thorp 1981 pp 242 245 li 1980 pp 393 394 lerner et al 1985 p 77 thorp 1981 p 245 yuan jing flad rowan 2003 two issues concerning domesticated horses in china bulletin of the museum of far eastern antiquities 75 110 126 1 2 3 ebrey walthall palais 2006 p 14 eno robert 2010 shang society history g380 indiana university hdl 2022 23464 schwartz adam c 2020 the oracle bone inscriptions from huayuanzhuang east de gruyter hdl 20 500 12657 23217 isbn 978 1 5015 0533 1 keightley 1999 pp 272 273 286 keightley 1999 pp 287 1 2 3 chang 1994 keightley 1998 keightley 1999 pp 253 254 keightley 2004 1 2 smith 1961 1 2 3 ebrey walthall palais 2006 p 17 wu hsiao yun 2013 chariots in early china origins cultural interaction and identity bar isbn 978 1 4073 1065 7 rawson jessica june 2020 chariotry and prone burials reassessing late shang china s relationship with its northern neighbours journal of world prehistory 33 2 135 168 doi 10 1007 s10963 020 09142 4 s2cid 254751158 shaughnessy 1988 barbieri low anthony j february 2000 wheeled vehicles in the chinese bronze age c 2000 741 b c pdf sino platonic papers 99 creel herrlee g 1970 the origins of statecraft in china university of chicago press p 232 taskin v s 1992 мужуны mujuns материалы по истории кочевых народов в китаiii v вв in russian vol 3 moscow nauka p 10 isbn 5 02 016746 0 keightley 1999 p 269 wang 1993 sawyer sawyer 1994 p 35 sawyer sawyer 1994 pp 33 34 so jenny f bunker emma c 1995 traders and raiders on china s northern frontier pdf seattle smithsonian institution pp 35 36 isbn 978 0 295 97473 6 enough northern bronze knives tools and fittings have been recovered from royal burials at the shang capital of anyang to suggest that people of northern heritage mingled with the chinese in their capital city these artifacts must have entered shang domain through trade war intermarriage or other circumstances wilkinson 2013 p 684 keightley 1999 p 235 smith 2011 pp 3 5 keightley 1999 pp 234 235 240 241 keightley 1978a p 187 keightley 1978a pp 187 207 209 works cited edit allan sarah 1991 the shape of the turtle myth art and cosmos in early china state university of new york press isbn 978 0 7914 9449 3 bagley robert 1999 shang archaeology in loewe michael shaughnessy edward l eds the cambridge history of ancient china from the origins of civilization to 221 bc cambridge university press pp 124 231 isbn 978 0 521 47030 8 chang kwang chih 1994 shang shamans in peterson willard j ed the power of culture studies in chinese cultural history hong kong chinese university press pp 10 36 isbn 978 962 201 596 8 chen yan 2002 maritime silk route and chinese foreign cultural exchanges beijing peking university press isbn 978 7 301 03029 5 cheung kwong yue 1983 recent archaeological evidence relating to the origin of chinese characters in keightley david n ed the origins of chinese civilization translated by barnard noel university of california press pp 323 391 isbn 978 0 520 04229 2 ebrey patricia buckley walthall anne palais james b 2006 east asia a cultural social and political history boston houghton mifflin isbn 978 0 618 13384 0 fairbank john king goldman merle 2006 china a new history 2nd ed harvard university press isbn 978 0 674 03665 9 keightley david n 1978a sources of shang history the oracle bone inscriptions of bronze age china berkeley university of california press isbn 0 520 02969 0 a 1985 paperback 2nd edition is still in print isbn 0 520 05455 5 1978b the bamboo annals and shang chou chronology harvard journal of asiatic studies 38 2 423 438 doi 10 2307 2718906 jstor 2718906 1998 shamanism death and the ancestors religious mediation in neolithic and shang china ca 5000 1000 b c asiatische studien vol 52 no 3 pp 763 831 doi 10 5169 seals 147432 1999 the shang china s first historical dynasty in loewe michael shaughnessy edward l eds the cambridge history of ancient china from the origins of civilization to 221 bc cambridge university press pp 232 291 isbn 978 0 521 47030 8 2000 the ancestral landscape time space and community in late shang china ca 1200 1045 b c china research monograph vol 53 berkeley institute of east asian studies university of california isbn 978 1 55729 070 0 2004 the making of the ancestors late shang religion and its legacy in lagerwey john ed chinese religion and society the transformation of a field hong kong chinese university press pp 3 63 isbn 978 962 996 123 7 lee yun kuen 2002 building the chronology of early chinese history asian perspectives 41 1 15 42 doi 10 1353 asi 2002 0006 hdl 10125 17161 s2cid 67818363 lerner martin murck alfreda ford barbara b hearn maxwell valenstein suzanne g 1985 asian art recent acquisitions metropolitan museum of art 1985 1986 72 88 doi 10 2307 1513695 jstor 1513695 li chu tsing 1980 the great bronze age of china art journal 40 1 2 390 395 doi 10 2307 776607 jstor 776607 liu kexin wu xiaohong guo zhiyu yuan sixun ding xingfang fu dongpo pan yan 2021 radiocarbon dating of oracle bones of late shang period in ancient china radiocarbon 63 1 155 175 bibcode 2021radcb 63 155l doi 10 1017 rdc 2020 90 mair victor h 2011 religious formations and intercultural contacts in early china in krech volkhard steinicke marian eds dynamics in the history of religions between asia and europe encounters notions and comparative perspectives brill pp 85 110 isbn 978 90 04 22535 0 needham joseph 1971 science and civilisation in china vol iv 3 cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 07060 7 nivison david s 2018 schwartz adam c ed the nivison annals de gruyter mouton doi 10 1515 9781501505393 isbn 978 1 5015 1454 8 pankenier david w 1981 1982 astronomical dates in shang and western zhou pdf early china 7 2 37 doi 10 1017 s0362502800005599 jstor 23351672 s2cid 163543848 qiu xigui 2000 chinese writing translated by mattos gilbert l norman jerry berkeley society for the study of early china and the institute of east asian studies university of california isbn 978 1 55729 071 7 sawyer ralph d sawyer mei chün lee 1994 sun tzu s the art of war new york barnes and noble isbn 978 1 56619 297 2 shaughnessy edward l 1988 historical perspectives on the introduction of the chariot into china harvard journal of asiatic studies 48 1 189 237 doi 10 2307 2719276 jstor 2719276 smith adam daniel 2011 the chinese sexagenary cycle and the ritual origins of the calendar in steele john m ed calendars and years ii astronomy and time in the ancient and medieval world oxbow pp 1 37 doi 10 7916 d8891cdx isbn 978 1 84217 987 1 smith howard 1961 chinese religion in the shang dynasty international review for the history of religions vol 8 no 2 pp 142 150 doi 10 1163 156852761x00090 jstor 3269424 sun guangqi 1989 中国古代航海史 history of navigation in ancient china in chinese beijing ocean press isbn 978 7 5027 0532 9 sun yan 2006 colonizing china s northern frontier yan and her neighbors during the early western zhou period international journal of historical archaeology 10 2 159 177 doi 10 1007 s10761 006 0005 3 s2cid 143815200 thorp robert l 1981 the date of tomb 5 at yinxu anyang a review article artibus asiae 43 3 239 246 doi 10 2307 3249839 jstor 3249839 wagner donald b 1993 iron and steel in ancient china brill isbn 978 90 04 09632 5 wang hongyuan 王宏源 1993 漢字字源入門 the origins of chinese characters beijing sinolingua isbn 978 7 80052 243 7 wilkinson endymion 2013 chinese history a new manual cambridge massachusetts harvard university asia center isbn 978 0 674 06715 8 further reading edit allen herbert j 1895 ssŭma ch ien s historical records chapter iii the yin dynasty journal of the royal asiatic society 27 3 translated by allen herbert j 601 615 doi 10 1017 s0035869x00145083 campbell roderick 2025 the shang economy cambridge university press chang kwang chih 1980 shang civilization yale university press isbn 0 300 02885 7 duan chang qun gan xue chun wang jeanny chien paul k 1998 relocation of civilization centers in an...