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185 monument to cuauhtémoc inaugurated 1887 by porfirio díaz in mexico city the late 19th century in mexico was a period in which aztec civilization became a point of national pride the era was dominated by liberal military hero porfirio díaz a mestizo from oaxaca who was president of mexico from 1876 to 1911 his policies opening mexico to foreign investors and modernizing the country under a firm hand controlling unrest order and progress undermined mexico s indigenous populations and their communities however for investigations of mexico s ancient civilizations his was a benevolent regime with funds supporting archeological research and for protecting monuments 186 scholars found it more profitable to confine their attention to indians who had been dead for a number of centuries 187 his benevolence saw the placement of a monument to cuauhtemoc in a major traffic roundabout glorieta of the wide paseo de la reforma which he inaugurated in 1887 in world fairs of the late 19th century mexico s pavilions included a major focus on its indigenous past especially the aztecs mexican scholars such as alfredo chavero helped shape the cultural image of mexico at these exhibitions 188 the mexican revolution 1910 1920 and the significant participation of indigenous people in the struggle in many regions ignited a broad government sponsored political and cultural movement of indigenismo with symbols of mexico s aztec past becoming ubiquitous most especially in mexican muralism of diego rivera 189 190 in their works mexican authors such as octavio paz and agustin fuentes have analyzed the use of aztec symbols by the modern mexican state critiquing the way it adopts and adapts indigenous culture to political ends yet they have also in their works made use of the symbolic idiom themselves paz for example critiqued the architectural layout of the national museum of anthropology which constructs a view of mexican history as culminating with the aztecs as an expression of a nationalist appropriation of aztec culture 191 aztec history and international scholarship president porfirio díaz in 1910 at the national museum of anthropology with the aztec calendar stone the international congress of americanists met in mexico city in 1910 on the centennial of mexican independence scholars in europe and the united states increasingly wanted investigations into mexico s ancient civilizations starting in the nineteenth century humboldt had been extremely important in bringing ancient mexico into broader scholarly discussions of ancient civilizations french americanist charles étienne brasseur de bourbourg 1814 1874 asserted that science in our own time has at last effectively studied and rehabilitated america and the americans from the previous viewpoint of history and archeology it was humboldt who woke us from our sleep 192 frenchman jean frédéric waldeck published voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la province d yucatan pendant les années 1834 et 1836 in 1838 although not directly connected with the aztecs it contributed to the increased interest in ancient mexican studies in europe english aristocrat lord kingsborough spent considerable energy in their pursuit of understanding ancient mexico kingsborough answered humboldt s call for the publication of all known mexican codices publishing nine volumes of antiquities of mexico 1831 1846 that were richly illustrated bankrupting him he was not directly interested in the aztecs but rather in proving that mexico had been colonized by jews citation needed however his publication of these valuable primary sources gave others access to them citation needed in the united states in the early 19th century interest in ancient mexico propelled john lloyd stephens to travel to mexico and then publish well illustrated accounts in the early 1840s the research of a half blind bostonian william hickling prescott into the spanish conquest of mexico resulted in his highly popular and deeply researched the conquest of mexico 1843 although not formally trained as a historian prescott drew on the obvious spanish sources but also ixtlilxochitl and sahagún s history of the conquest his resulting work was a mixture of pro and anti aztec attitudes it was not only a bestseller in english but it also influenced mexican intellectuals including the leading conservative politician lucas alamán alamán pushed back against his characterization of the aztecs in the assessment of benjamin keen prescott s history has survived attacks from every quarter and still dominates the conceptions of the laymen if not the specialist concerning aztec civilization 193 in the later 19th century businessman and historian hubert howe bancroft oversaw a huge project employing writers and researchers to write the history the native races of north america including mexico california and central america one entire work was devoted to ancient mexico half of which concerned the aztecs it was a work of synthesis drawing on ixtlilxochitl and brasseur de bourbourg among others 185 when the international congress of americanists was formed in nancy france in 1875 mexican scholars became active participants and mexico city hosted the biennial multidisciplinary meeting six times starting in 1895 mexico s ancient civilizations have continued to be the focus of major scholarly investigations by mexican and international scholars citation needed language and placenames metro moctezuma with a stylized feathered crown as its logo the nahuatl language is today spoken by 1 5 million people mostly in mountainous areas in the states of central mexico mexican spanish today incorporates hundreds of loans from nahuatl and many of these words have passed into general spanish use and further into other world languages 194 195 196 in mexico aztec place names are ubiquitous particularly in central mexico where the aztec empire was centered but also in other regions where many towns cities and regions were established under their nahuatl names as aztec auxiliary troops accompanied the spanish colonizers on the early expeditions that mapped new spain in this way even towns that were not originally nahuatl speaking came to be known by their nahuatl names 197 in mexico city there are commemorations of aztec rulers including on the mexico city metro line 1 with stations named for moctezuma ii and cuauhtemoc cuisine see also aztec cuisine and list of mexican dishes mexican cuisine continues to be based on staple elements of mesoamerican cooking and particularly of aztec cuisine corn chili beans squash tomato and avocado many of these staple products continue to be known by their nahuatl names carrying in this way ties to the aztec people who introduced these foods to the spaniards and onward to afro eurasia through the spread of ancient mesoamerican food elements particularly plants nahuatl loan words chocolate tomato chili avocado tamale taco pupusa chipotle pozole atole have been borrowed through spanish into other languages around the world 196 through the spread and popularity of mexican cuisine the culinary legacy of the aztecs can be said to have a global reach today aztec images and nahuatl words are often used to lend an air of authenticity or exoticism in the marketing of mexican cuisine 198 las tortilleras an 1836 lithograph after a painting by carl nebel of women grinding corn and making tortillas chapulines grasshoppers toasted and dusted with chilis continue to be a popular delicacy ethnic identity aztec and maya were newly listed examples given for american indian groups in the 2020 united states census and aztec became the largest american indian group that respondents identified as having a full background 199 200 in popular culture the idea of the aztecs has captivated the imaginations of europeans since the first encounters and has provided many iconic symbols to western popular culture 201 in his book the aztec image in western thought benjamin keen argued that western thinkers have usually viewed aztec culture through a filter of their cultural interests 202 the aztecs and figures from aztec mythology feature in western culture 203 the name of quetzalcoatl a feathered serpent god has been used for a genus of pterosaurs quetzalcoatlus a large flying reptile with a wingspan of as much as 11 meters 36 ft 204 quetzalcoatl has appeared as a character in many books films and video games american author gary jennings wrote two acclaimed historical novels set in aztec period mexico aztec 1980 and aztec autumn 1997 205 the novels were so popular that four more novels in the aztec series were written after his death 206 aztec society has also been depicted in cinema the mexican feature film the other conquest spanish la otra conquista from 2000 was directed by salvador carrasco and illustrated the colonial aftermath of the 1520s spanish conquest of mexico 207 the 1989 film retorno a aztlán by juan mora catlett is a work of historical fiction set during the rule of motecuzoma i filmed in nahuatl and with the alternative nahuatl title necuepaliztli in aztlan 208 209 in mexican exploitation b movies of the 1970s a recurring figure was the aztec mummy as well as aztec ghosts and sorcerers 210 see also mesoamerica portal indigenous peoples of the americas portal civilizations portal atamalqualiztli history of mexico indigenismo in mexico indigenous peoples of mexico list of mexico tenochtitlan rulers maya civilization mesoamerica mesoamerican chronology mixtec people nahuas nahuatl notes the term was not used as an endonym see definitions smith 1997 p 4 writes for many the term aztec refers strictly to the inhabitants of tenochtitlan the mexica people or perhaps the inhabitants of the valley of mexico the highland basin where the mexica and certain other aztec groups lived i believe it makes more sense to expand the definition of aztec to include the peoples of nearby highland valleys in addition to the inhabitants of the valley of mexico in the final few centuries before the arrival of the spaniards in 1519 the peoples of this wider area all spoke the nahuatl language the language of the aztecs and they all traced their origins to a mythical place called aztlan aztlan is the etymon of aztec a modern label that was not used by the aztecs themselves lockhart 1992 p 1 writes these people i call the nahuas a name they sometimes used themselves and the one that has become current today in mexico in preference to aztecs the latter term has several decisive disadvantages it implies a quasi national unity that did not exist it directs attention to an ephemeral imperial agglomeration it is attached specifically to the pre conquest period and by the standards of the time its use for anyone other than the mexica the inhabitants of the imperial capital tenochtitlan would have been improper even if it had been the mexica s primary designation which it was not the editors of the oxford handbook of the aztecs nichols rodríguez alegría 2017 p 3 write the use of terminology changed historically during the late postclassic and it has changed among modern scholars readers will find some variation in the terms authors employ in this handbook but in general different authors use aztecs to refer to people incorporated into the empire of the triple alliance in the late postclassic period an empire of such broad geographic extent subsumed much cultural linguistic and social variation and the term aztec empire should not obscure that scholars often use more specific identifiers such as mexica or tenochca when appropriate and they generally employ the term nahuas to refer to indigenous people in central mexico after the spanish conquest as lockhart 1992 proposed all of these terms introduce their own problems whether because they are vague subsume too much variation are imposed labels or are problematic for some other reason we have not found a solution that all can agree on and thus accept the varied viewpoints of authors we use the term aztec because today it is widely recognized by both scholars and the international public the name of the two aztec rulers which in this article is written as motecuzoma has several variants due to alterations to the original nahuatl word by speakers of english and spanish and due to different orthographical choices for writing nahuatl words in english the variant montezuma was originally the most common but has now largely been replaced with motecuhzoma and moteuczoma in spanish the term moctezuma which inverts the order of t and k has been predominant and is a common surname in mexico but is now also largely replaced with a form that respects the original nahuatl structure such as motecuzoma in nahuatl the word is motekʷso ma meaning he frowns like a lord hajovsky 2015 pp ix 147 n 3 gillespie 1989 argues that the name motecuzoma was a later addition added to make for a parallel to the later ruler and that his original name was only ilhuicamina some sources including the relación de tula and the history of motolinia suggest that atotoztli functioned as ruler of tenochtitlan succeeding her father indeed no conquests are recorded for motecuzoma in the last years of his reign suggesting that he may have been incapable of ruling or even dead diel 2005 the term tlatloque can generally be exchanged with the term tlatoani both referring to a leader of an atlepetl in the context of this article it is best to inference them as co referential singular form pilli this volume was later translated into spanish by ángel maría garibay k teacher of león portilla and it exists in english translation by john bierhorst references why are aztecs called mexicas mexicanroutes com 4 november 2023 retrieved 4 november 2023 e g offner 1983 gibson 1964 smith 1997 pp 4 7 lucia kristin de 2018 style memory and the production of history aztec pottery and the materialization of a toltec legacy pdf current anthropology 59 6 741 764 doi 10 1086 700916 issn 0011 3204 s2cid 150354407 smith 1997 pp 174 175 smith michael e 2014 the aztecs paid taxes not tribute mexicon 36 1 19 22 issn 0720 5988 jstor 43857654 smith 1997 pp 176 182 hernán cortés conquers the aztec empire history 22 september 2025 retrieved 22 september 2025 cline 2000 pp 193 197 1 2 náhuatl ar z vocabulario com mx archived from the original on 17 october 2012 retrieved 30 august 2012 aztec online etymology dictionary archived from the original on 7 july 2014 chimalpahin 1997 p 73 1 2 barlow 1949 1 2 león portilla 2000 barlow 1945 1 2 carrasco 1999 p 4 offner 1983 smith 1997 p 4 nichols rodríguez alegría 2017 gibson 1964 pp 9 21 lockhart 1992 p 1 smith 1997 p 2 campbell 1997 p 134 1 2 berdan anawalt 1997 boone 2000 pp 242 249 1 2 3 4 batalla 2016 león portilla 2002 sahagún 1577 berdan 2014 pp 25 28 beekman christensen 2003 smith 1997 pp 41 43 smith 1984 smith 1984 p 173 smith 1997 pp 44 45 townsend 2009 pp 60 62 townsend 2009 p 63 townsend 2009 pp 64 74 townsend 2009 pp 74 75 townsend 2009 pp 78 81 smith 1997 p 51 hassig...
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