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myxstion and mellyng furst wiþ danes and afterward wiþ normans in menye þe contray longage ys asperyed and som vseþ strange wlaffyng chyteryng harryng and garryng grisbytting although from the beginning englishmen had three manners of speaking southern northern and midlands speech in the middle of the country nevertheless through intermingling and mixing first with danes and then with normans amongst many the country language has arisen and some use strange stammering chattering snarling and grating gnashing john trevisa c 1385 40 the middle english period is often defined as beginning with the norman conquest in 1066 during the centuries that followed english was heavily influenced by the form of old french spoken by the new norman ruling class that had migrated to england known as old norman over the following decades of contact members of the middle and upper classes whether native english or norman became increasingly bilingual by 1150 at the latest bilingual speakers represented a majority of the english aristocracy and monolingual french speakers were nearly non existent 41 the french spoken by the norman elite in england eventually developed into the anglo norman language 42 the transition from old to middle english can also be placed during the composition of the ormulum c late 12th century a work by the augustinian canon orrm which highlights the blending of old english and anglo norman elements in the language for the first time 43 44 as the lower classes who represented the vast majority of the population remained monolingual english speakers the primary influence of norman was as a lexical superstratum introducing a wide range of loanwords related to politics legislation and prestigious social domains 11 for instance the french word trône appears for the first time from which the english word throne is derived 45 middle english also greatly simplified the inflectional system probably in order to reconcile old norse and old english which were inflectionally different but morphologically similar the distinction between nominative and accusative cases was lost except in personal pronouns the instrumental case was dropped and the use of the genitive case was limited to indicating possession the inflectional system regularised many irregular inflectional forms 46 and gradually simplified the system of agreement making word order less flexible 47 middle english literature includes geoffrey chaucer s canterbury tales c 1400 and thomas malory s le morte d arthur 1485 during the middle english period the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as chaucer 48 in the first translation of the entire bible into english by john wycliffe 1382 matthew 8 20 reads foxis han dennes and briddis of heuene han nestis 49 here the plural suffix n on the verb have is still retained but none of the case endings on the nouns are present early modern english main article early modern english illustration of the great vowel shift that affected long vowels in early modern english after the highest vowels i u broke into diphthongs ai au each of the lower vowels gradually shifted up one level to compensate the period of early modern english lasting from 1500 to 1700 was characterised by the great vowel shift 1350 1700 inflectional simplification and linguistic standardisation the great vowel shift affected the stressed long vowels of middle english it was a chain shift meaning that each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel system mid and open vowels were raised and close vowels were broken into diphthongs for example the word bite was originally pronounced as the word beet is today and the second vowel in the word about was pronounced as the word boot is today the great vowel shift explains many irregularities in spelling since english retains many spellings from middle english and it also explains why english vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages 50 51 english began to rise in prestige relative to norman french during the reign of henry v around 1430 the court of chancery in westminster began using english in its official documents and a new standard form of middle english known as chancery standard developed from the dialects of london and the east midlands in 1476 william caxton introduced the printing press to england and began publishing the first printed books in london thereby expanding the influence of this form of english 52 literature in early modern english includes the works of william shakespeare and the 1611 king james version kjv of the bible even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from modern english for example the consonant clusters kn ɡn sw in knight gnat and sword were still pronounced many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent the distinct characteristics of early modern english 53 matthew 8 20 in the kjv reads the foxes have holes and the birds of the ayre have nests 54 this exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sentence structure replacement with subject verb object word order and the use of of instead of the non possessive genitive as well as the introduction of loanwords from french ayre and word replacements bird originally meaning nestling which had replaced old english fugol 54 spread of modern english by the late 18th century the british empire had spread english through its colonies and geopolitical dominance commerce science and technology diplomacy art and formal education all contributed to english becoming the first truly global language english also facilitated worldwide international communication 55 4 english was adopted in parts of north america parts of africa oceania and many other regions when they obtained political independence some of the newly independent states that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using english as the official language in order to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others 56 57 58 in the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the united states and its status as a superpower following the second world war along with worldwide broadcasting in english by the bbc 59 and other broadcasters has caused the language to spread across the planet much faster 60 61 in 1951 the international civil aviation organization icao recommended to the international chicago convention that aviation english be universally adopted for international aeronautical radiotelephony communications 62 in 2001 the international maritime organization imo developed a set of key phrases named standard marine communication phrases smcp in english to be the recognised language supported by the international maritime community for use at sea in the 21st century english is more widely spoken and written than any other language in history 63 as modern english developed explicit norms for standard usage were published and spread through official media such as public education and state sponsored publications in 1755 samuel johnson published his dictionary of the english language which introduced standard spellings of words and usage norms in 1828 noah webster published the american dictionary of the english language to establish a norm for speaking and writing american english independent of the british standard within britain non standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised leading to the rapid spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes 64 in modern english the loss of grammatical case is almost complete it is now found only in pronouns such as he and him she and her who and whom and subject verb object word order is largely fixed 64 some changes such as the use of do support have become universalised earlier english did not use the word do as a general auxiliary as modern english does at first it was used only in question constructions and even then it was not obligatory 65 now do support with the verb have is becoming increasingly standardised the use of progressive forms ending in ing appears to be spreading to new constructions and forms such as had been being built are becoming more common regularisation of irregular forms also continues slowly e g dreamed instead of dreamt and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common e g more polite instead of politer british english is also undergoing change under the influence of american english fuelled by the strong presence of american english in the media 66 67 68 geographical distribution see also list of countries and territories where english is an official language list of countries by english speaking population and english speaking world majority native language co official and majority native language official but minority native language secondary language spoken as a second language by more than 20 per cent of the population de facto working language of government language of instruction in education etc 3 ef english proficiency index 2019 in europe 69 very high 63 07 70 27 high 58 26 61 86 moderate 52 50 57 38 low 48 69 52 39 very low 40 87 48 19 not included in report as of 2016 update 400 million people spoke english as their first language and 1 1 billion spoke it as a second language 70 english is the largest language by number of speakers spoken by communities on every continent 71 estimates of second language and foreign language speakers vary greatly depending on how proficiency is defined ranging from 470 million to more than 1 billion 7 in 2003 david crystal estimated that non native speakers outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of three to one 72 three circles model braj kachru has categorised countries into the three circles of english model according to how the language historically spread in each country how it is acquired by the population and the range of uses it has there with a country s classification being able to change over time 73 74 inner circle countries have large communities of native english speakers these include the united kingdom the united states australia canada ireland and new zealand where the majority speaks english as well as south africa where a significant minority speaks english the countries with the most native english speakers are in descending order the united states at least 231 million 75 the united kingdom 60 million 76 77 78 canada 19 million 79 australia at least 17 million 80 south africa 4 8 million 81 ireland 4 2 million and new zealand 3 7 million 82 in these countries children of native speakers learn english from their parents citizens with other first languages as well as incoming immigrants learn english in order to communicate in local english speaking neighbourhoods and workplaces 83 inner circle countries are the base from which english spreads to other regions of the world 73 outer circle countries such as the philippines 84 jamaica 85 india pakistan singapore 86 malaysia and nigeria 87 88 have much smaller proportions of native english speakers but the use of english as a second language in education government or domestic business is significant and its use for instruction in schools and for official government operations is routine 89 these countries have millions of native speakers on dialect continua which range from english based creole languages to standard varieties of english used in inner circle countries they have many more speakers who acquire english as they grow up through day to day use and exposure to english language broadcasting especially if they attend schools where english is the language of instruction varieties of english learned by non native speakers born to english speaking parents may be influenced especially in their grammar by the other languages spoken by those learners with most including words rarely used by native speakers in inner circle countries as well as grammatical and phonological differences from inner circle varieties 83 expanding circle countries are those where english is taught as a foreign language 90 though the character of english as a first second or foreign language in a given country is often debatable and may change over time 89 for example in countries such as the netherlands an overwhelming majority of the population can speak english 91 and it is often used in higher education and to communicate with foreigners 92 pluricentric english english is a pluricentric language which means that no single national authority sets the standard for its use 93 94 95 96 spoken english including english used in broadcasting generally follows national pronunciation standards that are established by custom rather than by regulation international broadcasters are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather than another through their accents 97 but newsreader scripts are also composed largely in international standard written english the norms of standard written english are maintained purely by the consensus of educated english speakers around the world without any oversight by any government or international organisation 98 american listeners readily understand most british broadcasting and british listeners readily understand most american broadcasting most english speakers around the world can understand radio programmes television programmes and films from many parts of the english speaking world 99 both standard and non standard varieties of english can include formal or informal styles distinguished by word choice and syntax and they use both technical and non technical registers 100 the settlement history of the english speaking inner circle countries outside britain helped to level dialect distinctions and produce koiné forms of english in south africa australia and new zealand 101 the majority of immigrants to the united states without british ancestry rapidly adopted english after arrival now the majority of the united states population are monolingual english speakers 75 102 australia has no official languages at the federal or state level 103 in canada english and french share official status at the federal level 104 105 english has official or co official status in six provinces and three territories while three provinces have none and quebec s only official language is french 106 english is the official second language of ireland while irish is the first 107 while new zealand is majority english speaking its two official languages are māori 108 and new zealand sign language 109 the united kingdom does not have an official language in wales and northern ireland english is co official alongside welsh 110 and irish 111 respectively neither scotland nor england has an official language in the united states english was designated the official language of the country by executive order 14224 in 2025 112 english has additional official or...
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