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ties were always considered and seen legally and politically as separate administrative divisions of a single insoluble state by the romans of the time 82 roman coins tremissis of romulus augustulus and julius nepos the last emperors of the western roman empire in the west the office of emperor soon degenerated into being little more than a puppet of germanic generals such as aetius and ricimer the last emperors of the west being known as the shadow emperor 83 in 476 the heruli odoacer overthrew the child emperor romulus augustulus made himself king of italy and shipped the imperial regalia to the emperor zeno in constantinople historians mark this date as the date of the fall of the western roman empire although by this time there was no longer any empire left as its territory had reduced to italy julius nepos who was overthrown and expelled to dalmatia in favor of romulus continued to claim the title until his murder in 480 the eastern court recognized this claim and odoacer minted coins in his name although he never managed to exercise real power 84 the death of nepos left zeno as the sole emperor of a technically reunited roman empire 1 byzantine period edit the roman empire survived in the east for another 1000 years but the marginalization of the former heartland of italy to the empire had a profound cultural impact on the empire and its emperor which adopted a more hellenistic character i the eastern emperors continued to be recognized in the western kingdoms until the accession of irene r 797 802 the first empress regnant the italian heartland was recovered during the reign of justinian i r 527 565 but this was reverted by the end of the century rome technically remained under imperial control but was completely surrounded by the lombards africa was lost to the arabs in the early 7th century and rome eventually fell to the lombards in 751 during the reign of constantine v the frankish king pepin the short defeated them and received the favour of pope stephen ii who became the head of the papal states pepin s son charlemagne was crowned imperator romanorum the first time imperator was used as an actual regnal title by pope leo iii in christmas ad 800 thus ending the recognition of the eastern emperor 88 western rulers also began referring to the empire as the greek empire regarding themselves as the true successors of rome 89 miniature depicting manuel ii palaiologos and his family 1404 j the inhabitants of the eastern half of the empire always saw the emperor as an open monarch starting with heraclius in 629 roman emperors styled themselves basileus the traditional title for greek monarchs used since the times of alexander the great 91 the title was used since the early days of the empire and became the common imperial title by the 3rd century but did not appear in official documents until the 7th century 92 michael i rangabe r 811 813 was the first emperor to actually use the title of roman emperor βασιλεύς ῥωμαίων basileus romaíon this was a response to the new line of emperors created by charlemagne although he was recognized as basileus of the franks 93 by the 9th century the full imperial title became basileus and autokrator of the romans usually translated as emperor and autocrat of the romans 94 k the title autokrator was also used to distinguish a junior co emperor basileus from his senior colleague basileus autokrator 94 by the times of the palaiologos there were two distinct ceremonies for the accession of an emperor first an acclamation as basileus and later a coronation as autokrator which also included being raised on a shield these rites could happen years apart 96 the eastern empire became not only an absolute monarchy but also a theocracy according to george ostrogorsky the absolute power of the roman emperor was further increased with the advent of christian ideas 97 this became more evident after the muslim conquests of the 7th century which gave byzantine imperialism a new sense of purpose 98 the emperor was the subject of a series of rites and ceremonies including a formal coronation performed by the patriarch of constantinople 97 the byzantine state is often said to have followed a caesaropapist model where the emperor played the role of ruler and head of the church but there was often a clear distinction between political and secular power 99 the line of eastern emperors continued uninterrupted until the sack of constantinople and the establishment of the latin empire in 1204 this led to the creation of three lines of emperors in exile the emperors of nicaea the emperors of trebizond and the short lived emperors of thessalonica the nicean rulers have been traditionally regarded as the legitimate emperors of this period as they recovered constantinople and restored the empire in 1261 l the empire of trebizond continued to exist for another 200 years but from 1282 onwards its rulers used the modified title of emperor and autocrat of all the east the iberians and the perateia accepting the niceans as the sole roman emperors 100 however the byzantine empire had been reduced mostly to constantinople and the rise of other powers such as serbia and bulgaria forced the byzantines to recognize their rulers as basileus despite this emperors continued to view themselves as the rulers of an universal empire 97 during the last decades of the empire power was once again shared between multiple emperors and colleagues each ruling from their own capital notably during the long reign of john v 101 constantinople finally fell to the ottoman turks in 1453 its last emperor constantine xi palaiologos died in battle the last vestiges of the empire morea and trebizond fell in 1461 101 ottoman claim edit main article ottoman claim to roman succession following the fall of constantinople in 1453 the ottoman sultans beginning with mehmed ii claimed the roman throne by right of conquest taking great pains to represent themselves as the legitimate successors to the fallen byzantine empire to some success 102 80 this effort reached its apogee during the reign of suleyman the magnificent who integrated kayser i rûm caesar of rome into his full imperial title 103 183 this claim was disputed by some other european powers 103 191 102 80 gradually the ottoman claim to the roman throne decreased in importance as the ottomans turned to cultivating islamic legitimacy instead 103 176 titles edit imperator edit main article imperator denarius of julius caesar marked caesar imp erator aureus of vespasian marked imp erator caesar vespasianus aug ustus the title imperator from imperare to command dates back to the roman republic and was given to victorious commanders by their soldiers they held imperium that is military authority the senate could then award the extraordinary honor of a triumph the commander then retained the title until the end of his magistracy in roman tradition the first triumph was that of romulus the founder of rome but the first attested use of imperator was in 189 bc on the triumph of aemilius paulus it was a title held with great pride pompey was hailed imperator more than once as was sulla and julius caesar 104 however as noted by cassius dio the meaning of the title changed under the new monarchy and came to denote the possession of the supreme power 105 both dio and suetonius refer to caesar as the first one to assume imperator as a proper name a praenomen imperatoris but this seems to be an anachronism 106 the last ordinary general to be awarded the title was junius blaesus in ad 22 after which it became a title reserved solely for the sovereign 104 augustus used imperator instead of his first name praenomen becoming imperator caesar instead of caesar imperator 104 from this the title slowly became a synonym of the office hence the word emperor tiberius caligula and claudius avoided using the title but it is recorded that caligula was hailed imperator by the senate on his accession indicating that it was already considered an integral part of the dignity 107 it was not until the late reign of nero in ad 66 that imperator became once more part of the emperor s nomenclature 108 virtually all emperors after him used the praenomen imperatoris with only a few variations under his successors galba and vitellius 109 the original meaning of the title continued to be used for a time with emperors registering the number of times they were hailed imperator 105 the title became the main appellation of the ruler by the time of vespasian 104 110 after the tetrarchy emperors began to be addressed as dominus noster our lord although imperator continued to be used the appellation of dominus was known and rejected by augustus but ordinary men of the empire used it regularly it began to used in official context starting with septimius severus and was first officially adopted in coinage by aurelian 111 in the east imperator was translated as autokrator self ruler a title that continued to be used until the end of the empire this is the modern greek word for emperor αυτοκράτορας there are still some instances of imperator in official documents as late as the 9th century its last known use was on 866 867 coins of michael iii and his co emperor basil i who are addressed as imperator and rex respectively 112 in the west imperator was transformed into a monarchical title by charlemagne becoming the official latin title of the holy roman empire caesar edit main article caesar title originally the cognomen third name of the dictator gaius julius caesar which was then inherited by augustus and his relatives augustus used it as a family name nomen styling himself as imp caesar instead of imp julius caesar 106 however the nomen was still inherited by women such as julia the younger and appear in some inscriptions 113 after the death of caligula augustus great grandson his uncle claudius was proclaimed emperor he was not an official member of the julia gens 114 but he was the grandson of octavia augustus sister and thus still part of the family 115 following the suicide of nero the last descendant of caesar the new emperor galba adopted the name of servius galba caesar augustus thus making it part of the imperial title five days before his murder he adopted piso licinianus as his son and heir renaming him as servius sulpicius galba caesar 116 after this caesar came to denote the heir apparent who would add the name to his own as heir and retain it upon accession as augustus 111 the only emperor not to assume it was vitellius who adopted the name germanicus instead most emperors used it as their nomen with imperator as their praenomen until the reign of antoninus pius when it permanently became part of the formula imperator caesar full name augustus 109 in the 3rd century caesars also received the honorific of nobilissimus most noble which later evolved into a separate title 117 coin of constantius ii marked d ominus n oster constantius p ius f elix aug ustus during the tetrarchy the powers of the caesar increased considerably but following the accession of constantine i it once more remained as a title for heirs with no significant power attached to it the title slowly lost importance in the following decades as emperors started to promote their sons directly to augustus in the east the title finally lost its imperial character in 705 when justinian ii awarded it to tervel of bulgaria m after this it became a court title bestowed to prominent figures of the government and lost even more relevance after the creation of the title sebastokrator by alexios i komnenos 118 despite this its regular use by earlier emperors led to the name becoming synonym with emperor in certain regions several countries use caesar as the origin of their word for emperor like kaiser in germany and tsar in bulgaria and russia after the constantinian dynasty emperors followed imperator caesar with flavius which also began as a family name but was later incorporated into the emperor s titles thus becoming imperator caesar flavius 119 the last use of the formula rendered as autokrator kaisar flabios augoustos αὐτοκράτωρ καῖσαρ φλάβιος αὐγουστος in ancient greek is in the basilika of leo vi the wise r 886 912 120 augustus edit main article augustus title originally the main title of the emperor 121 according to suetonius it was not merely a new title but a more honorable one inasmuch as sacred places too and those in which anything is consecrated by augural rites are called august augusta from the increase auctus in dignity it was also connected to the religious practice of augury which was itself linked to rome s founding by romulus and to auctoritas the authority based on prestige 122 the honorific was awarded as both a name and a title to octavian in 27 bc and was inherited by all subsequent emperors who placed it after their personal names the only emperor to not immediately assume it was vitellius although he did use it after his recognition by the senate 123 later emperors ruled alongside one or several junior augusti who held de jure but not de facto equal constitutional power n despite its use as the highest imperial title it was generally not used to indicate the office of emperor itself as ordinary people and writers had become accustomed to imperator in the east the title was initially translated as sebastos but the form augoustos eventually became more common emperors after heraclius styled themselves as basileus but augoustos still remained in use in a lesser form up until the end of the empire in the west the title was also used by charlemagne and the subsequent holy roman emperors as part of the formula imperator augustus both eastern and western rulers also used the style semper augustus forever augustus 124 princeps edit main article princeps the word princeps meaning first was a republican term used to denote the leading member of the senate and it was used by the early emperors to emphasize the continuance of the republic 111 the title had already been used by pompey and julius caesar among others it was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers hence why it was never used in official titulature 125 the title was the most preferred by augustus as its use implies only primacy is in the first among equals as opposed to dominus which implies dominance it was the title used by early writers before the term imperator became popular 110 in his res gestae augustus explicitly refers to himself as the princeps senatus 126 the title was also sometimes given to heirs in the form of princeps iuventutis first of the youth a term that continued to be used during the tetrarchy 127 in the era of diocletian and beyond princeps fell into disuse and was replaced with dominus lord 128 the use of princeps and dominus broadly symbolizes the differences in the empire s government giving rise to the era designations principate and dominate the title is still found in some later sources however the poet claudian for example describes honorius ...
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