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niversal monarchy under spanish patronage or leadership only with charles v with possible pretensions of world domination through an association with the iberian union oversea empire 6 dominions of the habsburgs in 1556 charles v edit main article charles v holy roman emperor charles v 1500 1558 inherited vast lands across western europe and the americas and expanded them by frequent wars 22 among other domains he was king of spain from 1516 and holy roman emperor and archduke of austria from 1519 as head of the rising house of habsburg during the first half of the 16th century his dominions in europe extending from germany to northern italy with direct rule over the austrian hereditary lands and the burgundian low countries and a unified spain with its southern italian kingdoms of naples sicily and sardinia charles v imperial ideology was based in the universal monarchy with influences from dante alighieri and erasmus christian humanism which supported ghibelline political theory that given the universal power firstly to the monarch and then to the pope this provoked an initial conflict between the hre and the papal states as a continuation of the medieval dispute over dominium mundi in which spain took the side of the empire over the church opposing to the political theology of the doctrine of two swords this initial bad reputation of regalist and cripto heretic added to his foreign origins provocated the initial resistance of spaniards to join to the charles v empire after the reconciliation of the hre and spain with the papacy spain take a relevant position as the dominant power of the imperial project overcoming the kingdom of germany divided by the protestant reform in the protagonism of charles v s foreign policy but at the cost of the resignation of mercurino di gattinara main ideologue from the spanish cortes 23 his great enemy on land was france on the mediterranean sea it was the ottoman empire 24 which at times was allied with france england and the papacy were sometimes part of the coalition against him much of his attention focused on wars in italy at the diet of augsburg 1547 he secured recognition that the netherlands belonged to the hapsburg domain however charles was intensely catholic and the northern netherlands was protestant he and his spanish heirs fought for a century against dutch independence despite the enormous cost they failed 25 the anti islamic foreign policy was perceived as a continuation of the reconquista in which the main objective of spain was the continuation of such campaign until conquering the former roman tingitana modern morocco which was politically linked to the former roman hispania another goal was reconquering all early muslim conquests for the christendom inspired in the crusading movement which would end in the deposition of the ottoman caliphate after a crossing of north africa and the balkans to the holy land by a holy league of all europe led by spain and a habsburg persian alliance in a total victory however due to the french habsburg rivalry across europe making division and debiliting habsburg austria such ambitious project of a great anti ottoman coalition never materialized 26 so the realpolitik turned into a spanish ottoman struggle for the domination over the mediterranean sea specially the attempts to conquer the barbary states and the constant defense of the italian states from ottoman raids 27 in oversea charles foreign policy was determinated by the carreira de indias global rivalry with the portuguese empire 28 specially in the indonesian archipelago and in colonial brazil having to renounce some expansionist projects like the claims of spain over the spice islands after the treaty of zaragoza 29 for the sake of having good relations with the kingdom of portugal philip ii 1556 1598 edit main article philip ii of spain foreign policy during philip ii spain developed a big compromise as the main promotor of catholic counter reformation among europe defining an imperial ideology according to the teachings of the council of trent and traditionalist catholicism 30 spanish foreign policy during the reign of philip ii was developed in two phases in phase 1 between the 1560s and early 1570s priority was given to the defense of the mediterranean and the rivalry with the ottoman empire which was resolved in favor of the christian forces after the victory at lepanto in phase 2 between the late 1570s to 1590s priority was given to consolidating spanish control in the atlantic and the expansion of catholicism in the new world and the indies while also reacting against protestant expansion in western europe the anti islamic foreign policy of philip ii led to support a greater integration of the italian states for the development of an espionage system through the spain turkey diplomatic envoys 31 being important the ragusa republic as an intermediary 32 wanting to instigate anti ottoman revolts in albania or greece and coup d etats to the sublime porte 11 while reactivating the habsburg persian alliance 10 to prepare the possible collapse of the turks in the ottoman venetian war 1570 1573 however the venetian focus in its own interests in the stato da màr instead of an universitas christianna perspective disbanded the holy league of 1571 33 the anti protestant foreign policy led to a clash with england developing philip ii a personal enmity with elizabeth i for betraying her catholic sister and philip s wife mary i of england 34 and with the dutch while also a spanish intervention in the french wars of religion siding with the catholic league against huguenots and politiques and other minor religious conflicts like the cologne war also it led to the biggest expansion of spain s diplomatic area developing alliances with pro habsburg italian states and catholic swiss cantons while starting routine embassies to north europe and east europe for the first time having interests in defending holy see s interests in denmark norway sweden and poland lithuania 35 also during this time the polysynodial system was consolidated in the hispanic monarchy largely due to the importance that acquired the foreign policy of the spanish empire across different geopolitical units and also the foral nature of spain as a composite monarchy instead of a modern state in which non castillian states had their own social sovereign laws and politics this led to the development of 13 different councils with responsibilities in the netherlands italy portugal america and philippines etc the struggle for the control of spanish foreign policy let to internal conflicts in the spanish nobility as becoming secretary of those councils symbolised that their holders were very trusted by the king also the duty of those diplomats evolved into activities of espionage and the development of communication networks to consolidate spain s sphere of influence across europe and the world 35 for 16th century europe we cannot speak of states as we understand them today in the domains of philip ii as i have mentioned power was structured in several councils that is it was organized according to a polysynodal system in which changes were even more pronounced of all of them the one of greatest interest in this work is the council of state which among its many responsibilities advised on relations with other princes or territories based on these councils and the king s inner circle the presence of the royal secretaries is noteworthy these individuals became an institution in themselves and attained a power in the monarch s shadow that significantly surpassed that of some of the aforementioned councils from this centralized core emerged a second administration this administration following the dictates of high ranking officials maintained a physical presence in various foreign territories staffed by ambassadors secretaries and a vast underground network of informants and spies this is yet another example of how diplomacy during this period was a blend of foreign representation and espionage quite unlike our understanding of it today ultimately it was upon these two great foundations that the principal undertakings of the reign were carried out these undertakings by their very nature encompassed everything from mere symbolic acts aimed at sealing marriage alliances to conspiratorial activities that sought the overthrow of sovereigns and the reinstatement of supporters aligned with catholicism borja oliván aniés on oversea philip ii did reforms about the asiento de negros in benefit of portuguese africans 36 made stronger regulations against the entrance of foreigners in the spanish empire due to the piracy at the anglo spanish war while also adopted protectionist politics to limit the growing of chinese economic power in the philippines and then in spanish america 15 also was developed the junta de guerra de indias to protect spanish empire from the dutch empire raids and confront them around the world turning eighty years war into a global war 37 38 another important matter was the tiny rivalry between spain and the portuguese empire and then between the council of castile and the council of portugal about the sphere of influence over southeast asia 39 and south america 40 being developed inner conflicts due to the difficults to develop a common foreign policy there because differents conceptions of what was local policy and global one 41 42 becoming a struggle the assimilation of the kingdom of portugal in the iberian union due to the discusions to delimit the boundaries between inner and foreign policy there without harming the foral civil law 43 44 philip iii 1598 1621 edit main article philip iii of spain foreign policy the somerset house conference between english and spanish diplomats that brought an end to the anglo spanish war 1585 1604 philip iii has a poor reputation in terms of both domestic and foreign policy he inherited two major conflicts from his father the first of these the long running dutch revolt represented a serious challenge to spanish power from the protestant united provinces in a crucial part of the spanish empire the second the anglo spanish war was a newer and less critical conflict with protestant england marked by a spanish failure to successfully bring its huge military resources to bear on the smaller english military 45 philip s own foreign policy can be divided into three phases for the first nine years of his reign he pursued a highly aggressive set of policies aiming to deliver a great victory 46 his instructions to his most important advisor duke lerma to wage a war of blood and iron on his rebellious subjects in the netherlands reflects this 47 after 1609 when it became evident that spain was financially exhausted and philip sought a truce with the dutch there followed a period of retrenchment in the background tensions continued to grow however and by 1618 the policies of philip s proconsols were increasingly at odds with de lerma s policy from madrid 48 on oversea the projects to consolidate trade routes in the indo pacific became a priority over the traditional spanish foreign policy of secure the transatlantic crossing becoming an urgent the defense of the portuguese empire specially portuguese malacca 49 and hormuz in the iberian union against the dutch 50 51 or english with their local allies and a better integration of the spanish philippines with peninsular spain without depending on new spain through the manila galleon nor the port of callao in peru 52 to have better benefits from the china spain relations 53 while developing a great armada 54 to protect both philippines and portuguese india 55 56 another foreign policy was to make stronger the patronato real in the colonial cabildos in perjudge of the hierarchy of the catholic church becoming more powerful the spanish crown over the holy see in the religious policy 57 also the foreign policy in the mediterranean was deeply integrated in the main objectives of re starting the spanish ottoman wars although in a lesser scale focusing in the combat against barbary corsairs and minor conquests in algeria the intervention in the affairs of morocco supporting sometimes the republic of salé and the italian states supporting the interests of genoa and savoy against france venice and switzerland and attempts to consolidate spanish sicily naples sphere of influence in the adriatic sea developing a rivalry against the venetians at the time of the 3rd duke of osuna s rule 5 despite also philip iii promoted the development of flemish and german consulates in seville trying to integrate the spanish economical circuits with the ones of the hre on the eve of the thirty years war 58 bourbon spain edit europe in 1701 at the beginning of the war of the spanish succession war of the spanish succession and after 1701 1759 edit main articles war of the spanish succession and philip v of spain the war of the spanish succession 1701 1714 saw spain in a nearly helpless position as multiple european powers battled for control over which of three rivals would be king at first most of the warfare took place outside of spain however in 1704 spain was invaded by the germans officially by the holy roman empire including habsburg austria and prussia as well as other minor german states great britain the dutch republic the duchy of savoy and portugal the invaders wanted to make the habsburg candidate king instead of the incumbent philip v who the grandson of france s powerful king louis xiv and candidate of the house of bourbon spain had no real army but it defense was a high priority for louis xiv who sent in his french armies and after a devastating civil war eventually drove out the invaders from spain 59 60 after years of warfare and changing coalitions the final result was that philip v remained king in practice his wife elisabeth farnese ruled spain from 1714 until 1746 and was more interested in italy than spain spain was not even invited to the peace treaties peace of utrecht they forbade any future possibility of unifying the french and spanish crowns britain was the main winner it blocked france from becoming too powerful britain acquired minorca and gibraltar from spain as well as the right to sell slaves to spanish colonies britain also gained newfoundland and nova scotia from france spain kept its american colonies but lost its european holdings in italy and the spanish netherlands modern belgium mostly to austria spain briefly regained some italian holdings until the british sank its fleet in 1718 elisabeth farnese succeeded in recapturing naples and sicily she put her son on the throne there he abdicated in 1759 to return to madrid as king charles iii of spain 61 62 american revolutionary war 1775 1783 edit main article spain and the american revolutionary war eager to gain revenge on the british for its defeat during the seven years war france offered support to rebel american colonists seeking independence from britain during the ameri...
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