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able of exerting stronger antiparasitic defence such as stronger t cell immune response or larger uropygial glands harbour more taxa of amblyceran lice than others 25 26 reductions in the size of host populations may cause a long lasting reduction of louse taxonomic richness 27 for example birds introduced into new zealand host fewer species of lice there than in europe 28 29 the extinction of a species results in the extinction of its host specific lice host switching is a random event that would seem very rarely likely to be successful but speciation has occurred over evolutionary time scales so it must be successfully accomplished sometimes 27 lice may reduce host life expectancy if the infestation is heavy 30 but most seem to have little effect on their host the habit of dust bathing in domestic hens is probably an attempt by the birds to rid themselves of lice 17 lice may transmit microbial diseases and helminth parasites 31 but most individuals spend their whole life cycle on a single host and are only able to transfer to a new host opportunistically 17 ischnoceran lice may reduce the thermoregulation effect of the plumage thus heavily infested birds lose more heat than others 32 lice infestation is a disadvantage in the context of sexual rivalry 33 34 reproduction most louse species reproduce sexually only a few parthenogenetic species are known they lay eggs also called nits after hatching they develop through three larval nymphal stages into adults imagoes their sex ratios are more balanced in more social hosts and more female biased in less social hosts presumably due to the stronger isolation among louse subpopulations living on separate birds in the latter case 35 their sex determination system is paternal genome elimination i e males are functionally haploid they appear to manipulate offspring sex ratios as predicted by hamilton s local mate competition hypothesis 36 in human culture for information about human infestation see pediculosis for information on treatment see treatment of human head lice in social history drawing of a louse clinging to a human hair robert hooke micrographia 1667 lice have been intimately associated with human society throughout history in the middle ages they were essentially ubiquitous at the death of thomas becket archbishop of canterbury in 1170 it was recorded that the vermin boiled over like water in a simmering cauldron and the onlookers burst into alternate weeping and laughing 37 the clergy often saw lice and other parasites as a constant reminder of human frailty and weakness monks and nuns would purposely ignore grooming themselves and suffer from infestations to express their religious devotion 38 a mediaeval treatment for lice was an ointment made from pork grease incense lead and aloe 39 robert hooke s 1667 book micrographia or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and inquiries thereupon illustrated a human louse drawn as seen down an early microscope 40 margaret cavendish s satirical the description of a new world called the blazing world 1668 has lice men as mathematicians investigating nature by trying to weigh the air like the real scientist robert boyle 41 42 in 1935 the harvard medical researcher hans zinsser wrote the book rats lice and history alleging that both body and head lice transmit typhus between humans 43 despite this the modern view is that only the body louse can transmit the disease 44 detail showing delousing from jan siberechts painting cour de ferme farmyard 1662 soldiers in the trenches of the first world war suffered severely from lice and the typhus they carried the germans boasted that they had lice under effective control but themselves suffered badly from lice in the second world war on the eastern front especially in the battle of stalingrad delousing became a euphemism for the extermination of jews in concentration camps such as auschwitz under the nazi regime 45 in the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis patients express a persistent irrational fear of animals such as lice and mites imagining that they are continually infested and complaining of itching with an unshakable false belief that live organisms are present in the skin 46 in literature and folklore mother louse a notorious alewife in oxford during the mid 18th century shown with three lice as a coat of arms image by david loggan 47 48 james joyce s 1939 book finnegans wake has the character shem the penman infested with foxtrotting fleas the lieabed lice bats in his belfry 49 clifford e trafzer s a chemehuevi song the resilience of a southern paiute tribe retells the story of sinawavi coyote s love for poowavi louse her eggs are sealed in a basket woven by her mother who gives it to coyote instructing him not to open it before he reaches home hearing voices coming from it however coyote opens the basket and the people the world s first human beings pour out of it in all directions 50 the irish songwriter john lyons b 1934 wrote the popular 51 song the kilkenny louse house the song contains the lines well we went up the stairs and we put out the light sure in less than five minutes i had to show fight for the fleas and the bugs they collected to march and over me stomach they formed a great arch it has been recorded by christie purcell 1952 mary delaney on from puck to appleby 2003 and the dubliners on double dubliners 1972 among others 51 52 robert burns dedicated a poem to the louse inspired by witnessing one on a lady s bonnet in church ye ugly creepin blastid wonner detested shunn d by saint and sinner how dare ye set your fit upon her sae fine lady gae somewhere else and seek your dinner on some poor body john milton in paradise lost mentioned the biblical plague of lice visited upon pharaoh frogs lice and flies must all his palace fill with loathed intrusion and filled all the land john ray recorded a scottish proverb gie a beggar a bed and he ll repay you with a louse in shakespeare s troilus and cressida thersites compares menelaus brother of agamemnon to a louse ask me not what i would be if i were not thersites for i care not to be the louse of a lazar so i were not menelaus 53 in science the human body louse pediculus humanus humanus has the smallest insect genome known 54 and this louse can transmit certain diseases that the closely related human head louse p h capitis cannot with their simple life history and small genomes the pair make ideal model organisms to study the molecular mechanisms behind the transmission of pathogens and vector competence 55 lice have been the subject of significant dna research in the 2000s that led to discoveries on human evolution the three species of sucking lice that parasitize human beings belong to two genera pediculus and pthirus head lice pediculus humanus capitis body lice pediculus humanus humanus and pubic lice pthirus pubis human head and body lice genus pediculus share a common ancestor with chimpanzee lice while pubic lice genus pthirus share a common ancestor with gorilla lice using phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analysis reed et al hypothesized that pediculus and pthirus are sister taxa and monophyletic 56 in other words the two genera descended from the same common ancestor the age of divergence between pediculus and its common ancestor is estimated to be 6 7 million years ago which matches the age predicted by chimpanzee hominid divergence 56 because parasites rely on their hosts host parasite cospeciation events are likely genetic evidence suggests that human ancestors acquired pubic lice from gorillas approximately 3 4 million years ago 56 unlike the genus pediculus the divergence in pthirus does not match the age of host divergence that likely occurred 7 million years ago reed et al propose a pthirus species host switch around 3 4 million years ago while it is difficult to determine if a parasite host switch occurred in evolutionary history this explanation is the most parsimonious containing the fewest evolutionary changes 56 additionally the dna differences between head lice and body lice provide corroborating evidence that humans used clothing between 80 000 and 170 000 years ago before leaving africa 57 human head and body lice occupy distinct ecological zones head lice live and feed on the scalp while body lice live on clothing and feed on the body because body lice require clothing to survive the divergence of head and body lice from their common ancestor provides an estimate of the date of introduction of clothing in human evolutionary history 57 58 the mitochondrial genome of the human species of the body louse pediculus humanus humanus the head louse pediculus humanus capitis and the pubic louse pthirus pubis fragmented into a number of minichromosomes at least seven million years ago 59 analysis of mitochondrial dna in human body and hair lice reveals that greater genetic diversity existed in african than in non african lice 58 60 human lice can also shed light on human migratory patterns in prehistory the dominating theory of anthropologists regarding human migration is the out of africa hypothesis genetic diversity accumulates over time and mutations occur at a relatively constant rate because there is more genetic diversity in african lice the lice and their human hosts must have existed in africa before anywhere else 60 woodlouse the name woodlouse or wood louse is given to crustaceans of the suborder oniscidea within the order isopoda unrelated to lice the oxford english dictionary s earliest citation of this usage is from 1611 61 see also pest organism use of dna in forensic entomology references de moya r s yoshizawa k walden k k o sweet a d dietrich c h johnson k p 2021 phylogenomics of parasitic and nonparasitic lice insecta psocodea combining sequence data and exploring compositional bias solutions in next generation data sets systematic biology 70 4 719 738 doi 10 1093 sysbio syaa075 pmid 32979270 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