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e in the propellant acts as a combustion chamber the hot exhaust is choked at the throat which among other things dictates the amount of thrust produced exhaust exits the rocket a simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing nozzle grain propellant charge and igniter the solid grain mass burns in a predictable fashion to produce exhaust gases the flow of which is described by taylor culick flow the nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a designed chamber pressure while producing thrust from the exhaust gases once ignited a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off as it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned more advanced solid rocket motors can be throttled or extinguished 4 and re ignited by control of the nozzle geometry or through the use of vent ports furthermore pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments that can be ignited upon command are available modern designs may also include a steerable nozzle for guidance avionics recovery hardware parachutes self destruct mechanisms apus controllable tactical motors controllable divert and attitude control motors and thermal management materials history edit a battery of katyusha rocket launchers fires at german forces during the battle of stalingrad 6 october 1942 aerojet 260 motor test 25 september 1965 the medieval song dynasty chinese invented the solid propellant rocket 5 illustrations and descriptions in the 14th century chinese military treatise huolongjing by the ming dynasty military writer and philosopher jiao yu confirm that the chinese in 1232 used solid propellant rockets then known as fire arrows to drive back the mongols during the siege of kaifeng 1232 6 7 each arrow took the form of a simple solid propellant rocket tube that was filled with gunpowder one open end allowed the gas to escape and was attached to a long stick that acted as a guidance system for flight direction control 7 6 the first rockets with tubes of cast iron were used by the kingdom of mysore under hyder ali and tipu sultan in the 1750s these rockets had a reach of targets up to a mile and a half away these were extremely effective in the second anglo mysore war that ended in a humiliating defeat for the british east india company word of the success of the mysore rockets against the british triggered research in england france ireland and elsewhere when the british finally conquered the fort of srirangapatana in 1799 hundreds of rockets were shipped off to the royal arsenal near london to be reverse engineered this led to the first industrial manufacture of military rockets with the congreve rocket in 1804 8 in 1921 the soviet research and development laboratory gas dynamics laboratory began developing solid propellant rockets which resulted in the first launch in 1928 that flew for approximately 1 300 metres 9 these rockets were used in 1931 for the world s first successful use of rockets to assist take off of aircraft 10 the research continued from 1933 by the reactive scientific research institute rnii with the development of the rs 82 and rs 132 rockets including designing several variations for ground to air ground to ground air to ground and air to air combat 11 the earliest known use by the soviet air force of aircraft launched unguided anti aircraft rockets in combat against heavier than air aircraft took place in august 1939 during the battle of khalkhin gol 11 in june 1938 the rnii began developing a multiple rocket launcher based on the rs 132 rocket 12 in august 1939 the completed product was the bm 13 katyusha rocket launcher towards the end of 1938 the first significant large scale testing of the rocket launchers took place 233 rockets of various types were used a salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of 5 500 metres 3 4 mi by the end of world war ii total production of rocket launchers reached about 10 000 13 with 12 million rockets of the rs type produced for the soviet armed forces 14 in the united states modern castable composite solid rocket motors were invented by the american aerospace engineer jack parsons at caltech in 1942 when he replaced double base propellant with roofing asphalt and potassium perchlorate this made possible slow burning rocket motors of adequate size and with sufficient shelf life for jet assisted take off applications charles bartley employed at jpl caltech substituted curable synthetic rubber for the gooey asphalt creating a flexible but geometrically stable load bearing propellant grain that bonded securely to the motor casing this made possible much larger solid rocket motors atlantic research corporation significantly boosted composite propellant i sp in 1954 by increasing the amount of powdered aluminium in the propellant to as much as 20 15 solid propellant rocket technology got its largest boost in technical innovation size and capability with the various mid 20th century government initiatives to develop increasingly capable military missiles after initial designs of ballistic missile military technology designed with liquid propellant rockets in the 1940s and 1950s both the soviet union and the united states embarked on major initiatives to develop solid propellant local regional and intercontinental ballistic missiles including solid propellant missiles that could be launched from air or sea many other governments also developed these military technologies over the next 50 years by the later 1980s and continuing to 2020 these government developed highly capable solid rocket technologies have been applied to orbital spaceflight by many government directed programs most often as booster rockets to add extra thrust during the early ascent of their primarily liquid rocket launch vehicles some designs have had solid rocket upper stages as well examples flying in the 2010s include the european ariane 5 us atlas v and space shuttle and japan s h ii the largest solid rocket motors ever built were aerojet s three 6 60 meter 260 in monolithic solid motors cast in florida 16 motors 260 sl 1 and sl 2 were 6 63 meters 261 in in diameter 24 59 meters 80 ft 8 in long weighed 842 900 kilograms 1 858 300 lb and had a maximum thrust of 16 mn 3 500 000 lbf burn duration was two minutes the nozzle throat was large enough to walk through standing up the motor was capable of serving as a 1 to 1 replacement for the 8 engine saturn i liquid propellant first stage but was never used as such motor 260 sl 3 was of similar length and weight but had a maximum thrust of 24 mn 5 400 000 lbf and a shorter duration design edit design begins with the total impulse required which determines the fuel and oxidizer mass grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics the following are chosen or solved simultaneously the results are exact dimensions for grain nozzle and case geometries the grain burns at a predictable rate given its surface area and chamber pressure citation needed 17 the chamber pressure is determined by the nozzle throat diameter and grain burn rate allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design the length of burn time is determined by the grain web thickness clarification needed the grain may or may not be bonded to the casing case bonded motors are more difficult to design since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible common modes of failure in solid rocket motors include fracture of the grain failure of case bonding and air pockets in the grain all of these produce an instantaneous increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure which may rupture the casing another failure mode is casing seal failure seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain once a seal fails hot gas will erode the escape path and result in failure this was the cause of the space shuttle challenger disaster grain geometry edit solid rocket fuel deflagrates from the surface of exposed propellant in the combustion chamber in this fashion the geometry of the propellant inside the rocket motor plays an important role in the overall motor performance as the surface of the propellant burns the shape evolves a subject of study in internal ballistics most often changing the propellant surface area exposed to the combustion gases since the propellant volume is equal to the cross sectional area a s times the fuel length the volumetric propellant consumption rate is the cross sectional area times the linear burn rate b ̇ and the instantaneous mass flow rate of combustion gases generated is equal to the volumetric rate times the fuel density ρ m ρ b a s displaystyle dot m rho dot b a_ s several geometric configurations are often used depending on the application and desired thrust curve circular bore simulation c slot simulation moon burner simulation 5 point finocyl simulation circular bore if in bates configuration produces a progressive regressive increasing and then decreasing over time thrust curve moon burner an off center circular bore produces a progressive regressive long burn which has slight asymmetric cg characteristics end burner propellant burns from one axial end to other producing a steady long burn which has thermal difficulties and shifts the center of gravity cg over time c slot propellant with large wedge cut out of the side along axial direction producing fairly long regressive decreasing over time thrust though it has thermal difficulties and asymmetric cg characteristics finocyl usually a 5 or 6 legged star like shape that can produce very level thrust with a bit quicker burn than circular bore due to increased surface area casing edit the casing may be constructed from a range of materials cardboard is used for small black powder model motors whereas aluminium is used for larger composite fuel hobby motors steel was used for the space shuttle boosters filament wound graphite epoxy casings are used for high performance motors the casing must be designed to withstand the pressure and resulting stresses of the rocket motor possibly at elevated temperature for design the casing is considered a pressure vessel to protect the casing from corrosive hot gases a sacrificial thermal liner on the inside of the casing is often implemented which ablates to prolong the life of the motor casing nozzle edit main article rocket engine nozzle a convergent divergent design accelerates the exhaust gas out of the nozzle to produce thrust the nozzle must be constructed from a material that can withstand the heat of the combustion gas flow often heat resistant carbon based materials are used such as amorphous graphite or reinforced carbon carbon some designs include directional control of the exhaust this can be accomplished by gimballing the nozzle as in the space shuttle srbs by the use of jet vanes in the exhaust as in the v 2 rocket or by liquid injection thrust vectoring litv litv consists of injecting a liquid into the exhaust stream after the nozzle throat the liquid then vaporizes and in most cases chemically reacts adding mass flow to one side of the exhaust stream and thus providing a control moment for example the titan iii c solid boosters injected dinitrogen tetroxide for litv the tanks can be seen on the sides of the rocket between the main center stage and the boosters 18 an early minuteman first stage used a single motor with four gimballed nozzles to provide pitch yaw and roll control performance edit an exhaust cloud engulfs launch pad 39a at nasa s kennedy space center as the space shuttle endeavour lifts off a typical well designed ammonium perchlorate composite propellant apcp first stage motor may have a vacuum specific impulse i sp as high as 285 6 seconds 2 801 km s titan ivb srmu 19 this compares to 339 3 s 3 327 km s for rp1 lox rd 180 20 and 452 3 s 4 436 km s for lh 2 lox block ii rs 25 21 bipropellant engines upper stage specific impulses are somewhat greater as much as 303 8 s 2 979 km s for apcp orbus 6e 22 359 s 3 52 km s for rp1 lox rd 0124 23 and 465 5 s 4 565 km s for lh 2 lox rl10b 2 24 propellant fractions are usually somewhat higher for non segmented solid propellant first stages than for upper stages the 53 000 kilogram 117 000 lb castor 120 first stage has a propellant mass fraction of 92 23 while the 14 000 kilogram 31 000 lb castor 30 upper stage developed for orbital science s taurus ii cots commercial off the shelf international space station resupply launch vehicle has a 91 3 propellant fraction with 2 9 graphite epoxy motor casing 2 4 nozzle igniter and thrust vector actuator and 3 4 non motor hardware including such things as payload mount interstage adapter cable raceway instrumentation etc castor 120 and castor 30 are 2 36 and 2 34 meters 93 and 92 in in diameter respectively and serve as stages on the athena ic and iic commercial launch vehicles a four stage athena ii using castor 120s as both first and second stages became the first commercially developed launch vehicle to launch a lunar probe lunar prospector in 1998 solid rockets can provide high thrust for relatively low cost for this reason solids have been used as initial stages in rockets for example the space shuttle while reserving high specific impulse engines especially less massive hydrogen fueled engines for higher stages in addition solid rockets have a long history as the final boost stage for satellites due to their simplicity reliability compactness and reasonably high mass fraction 25 a spin stabilized solid rocket motor is sometimes added when extra velocity is required such as for a mission to a comet or the outer solar system because a spinner does not require a guidance system on the newly added stage thiokol s extensive family of mostly titanium cased star space motors has been widely used especially on delta launch vehicles and as spin stabilized upper stages to launch satellites from the cargo bay of the space shuttle star motors have propellant fractions as high as 94 6 but add on structures and equipment reduce the operating mass fraction by 2 or more higher performing solid rocket propellants are used in large strategic missiles as opposed to commercial launch vehicles hmx c 4 h 8 n 4 no 2 4 a nitramine with greater energy than ammonium perchlorate was used in the propellant of the peacekeeper icbm and is the main ingredient in nepe 75 propellant used in the trident ii d 5 fleet ballistic missile 26 it is because of explosive hazard that the higher energy military solid propellants containing hmx are not used in commercial launch vehicles except when the lv is an adapted ballistic missile already containing hmx propellant minotaur iv and v based on the retired peacekeeper icbms 27 the naval air weapons station at china lake california developed a new compound c 6 h 6 n 6 no 2 6 called simply cl 20 china lake compound 20 compared to hmx cl 20 has 14 more energy per mass 20 more energy per volume ...
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