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zarin the cardinal depended totally on anne s support and had to use all his influence on the queen to temper some of her radical actions anne imprisoned any aristocrat or member of parliament who challenged her will her main aim was to transfer to her son an absolute authority in the matters of finance and justice one of the leaders of the parlement of paris whom she had jailed died in prison 21 the frondeurs political heirs of the disaffected feudal aristocracy sought to protect their traditional feudal privileges from the increasingly centralized royal government furthermore they believed their traditional influence and authority was being usurped by the recently ennobled bureaucrats the noblesse de robe or nobility of the robe who administered the kingdom and on whom the monarchy increasingly began to rely this belief intensified the nobles resentment citation needed in 1648 anne and mazarin attempted to tax members of the parlement de paris the members refused to comply and ordered all of the king s earlier financial edicts burned buoyed by the victory of louis duke of enghien later known as le grand condé at the battle of lens mazarin on queen anne s insistence arrested certain members in a show of force 22 the most important arrest from anne s point of view concerned pierre broussel one of the most important leaders in the parliament of paris 1655 portrait of louis the victor of the fronde portrayed as the god jupiter people in france were complaining about the expansion of royal authority the high rate of taxation and the reduction of the authority of the parlement de paris and other regional representative entities paris erupted in rioting as a result and anne was forced under intense pressure to free broussel moreover on the night of 9 10 february 1651 when louis was twelve a mob of angry parisians broke into the royal palace and demanded to see their king led into the royal bed chamber they gazed upon louis who was feigning sleep were appeased and then quietly departed 23 the threat to the royal family prompted anne to flee paris with the king and his courtiers shortly thereafter the conclusion of the peace of westphalia allowed condé s army to return to aid louis and his court condé s family was close to anne at that time and he agreed to help her attempt to restore the king s authority 24 the queen s army headed by condé attacked the rebels in paris the rebels were under the political control of anne s old friend marie de rohan beaufort who had escaped from the prison where anne had incarcerated him five years before was the military leader in paris under the nominal control of conti after a few battles a political compromise was reached the peace of rueil was signed and the court returned to paris unfortunately for anne her partial victory depended on condé who wanted to control the queen and destroy mazarin s influence it was condé s sister who pushed him to turn against the queen after striking a deal with her old friend marie de rohan who was able to impose the nomination of charles de l aubespine marquess of châteauneuf as minister of justice anne arrested condé his brother armand de bourbon prince of conti and the husband of their sister anne genevieve de bourbon duchess of longueville this situation did not last long and mazarin s unpopularity led to the creation of a coalition headed mainly by marie de rohan and the duchess of longueville this aristocratic coalition was strong enough to liberate the princes exile mazarin and impose a condition of virtual house arrest on queen anne portrait by justus van egmont between the years 1649 1652 all these events were witnessed by louis and largely explained his later distrust of paris and the higher aristocracy 25 in one sense louis s childhood came to an end with the outbreak of the fronde it was not only that life became insecure and unpleasant a fate meted out to many children in all ages but that louis had to be taken into the confidence of his mother and mazarin on political and military matters of which he could have no deep understanding attribution needed 26 the family home became at times a near prison when paris had to be abandoned not in carefree outings to other chateaux but in humiliating flights attribution needed 26 the royal family was driven out of paris twice in this manner and at one point louis xiv and anne were held under virtual arrest in the royal palace in paris the fronde years planted in louis a hatred of paris and a consequent determination to move out of the ancient capital as soon as possible never to return 27 just as the first fronde the parliamentary fronde of 1648 1649 ended a second one the fronde of the princes of 1650 1653 began unlike that which preceded it tales of sordid intrigue and half hearted warfare characterized this second phase of upper class insurrection to the aristocracy this rebellion represented a protest for the reversal of their political demotion from vassals to courtiers it was headed by the highest ranking french nobles among them louis s uncle gaston duke of orléans and first cousin anne marie louise d orléans duchess of montpensier known as la grande mademoiselle princes of the blood such as condé his brother armand de bourbon prince of conti and their sister the duchess of longueville dukes of legitimised royal descent such as henri duke of longueville and françois duke of beaufort so called foreign princes such as frédéric maurice duke of bouillon his brother turenne the marshal of france and marie de rohan duchess of chevreuse and scions of france s oldest families such as françois de la rochefoucauld citation needed queen anne played the most important role in defeating the fronde because she wanted to transfer absolute authority to her son in addition most of the princes refused to deal with mazarin who went into exile for a number of years the frondeurs claimed to act on louis s behalf and in his real interest against his mother and mazarin queen anne had a very close relationship with the cardinal and many observers believed that mazarin became louis xiv s stepfather by a secret marriage to queen anne 28 however louis s coming of age and subsequent coronation deprived them of the frondeurs pretext for revolt the fronde thus gradually lost steam and ended in 1653 when mazarin returned triumphantly from exile from that time until his death mazarin was in charge of foreign and financial policy without the daily supervision of anne who was no longer regent 29 during this period louis fell in love with mazarin s niece marie mancini but anne and mazarin ended the king s infatuation by sending mancini away from court to be married in italy while mazarin might have been tempted for a short time to marry his niece to the king of france queen anne was absolutely against this she wanted to marry her son to the daughter of her brother philip iv of spain for both dynastic and political reasons mazarin soon supported the queen s position because he knew that her support for his power and his foreign policy depended on making peace with spain from a strong position and on the spanish marriage additionally mazarin s relations with marie mancini were not good and he did not trust her to support his position all of louis s tears and his supplications to his mother did not make her change her mind the spanish marriage would be very important both for its role in ending the war between france and spain because many of the claims and objectives of louis s foreign policy for the next 50 years would be based upon this marriage and because it was through this marriage that the spanish throne would ultimately be delivered to the house of bourbon 30 personal reign and reforms coming of age and early reforms royal monogram louis xiv was declared to have reached the age of majority on the 7th of september 1651 on the death of mazarin in march 1661 louis personally took the reins of government and astonished his court by declaring that he would rule without a chief minister up to this moment i have been pleased to entrust the government of my affairs to the late cardinal it is now time that i govern them myself you secretaries and ministers will assist me with your counsels when i ask for them i request and order you to seal no orders except by my command i order you not to sign anything not even a passport without my command to render account to me personally each day and to favor no one 31 capitalizing on the widespread public yearning for peace and order after decades of foreign and civil strife the young king consolidated central political authority at the expense of the feudal aristocracy praising his ability to choose and encourage men of talent the historian chateaubriand noted it is the voice of genius of all kinds which sounds from the tomb of louis 32 louis began his personal reign with administrative and fiscal reforms in 1661 the treasury verged on bankruptcy to rectify the situation louis chose jean baptiste colbert as controller general of finances in 1665 however louis first had to neutralize nicolas fouquet the powerful superintendent of finances although fouquet s financial indiscretions were not very different from mazarin s before him or colbert s after him his ambition worried louis he lavishly entertained the king at the opulent château of vaux le vicomte flaunting a wealth which could hardly have accumulated except through embezzlement of government funds fouquet appeared eager to succeed mazarin and richelieu in power and he indiscreetly purchased and privately fortified the remote island of belle île these acts sealed his doom fouquet was charged with embezzlement the parlement found him guilty and sentenced him to exile and finally louis altered the sentence to life imprisonment members of the académie des sciences with louis in 1667 in the background appears the new paris observatory fouquet s downfall gave colbert a free hand to reduce the national debt through more efficient taxation the principal taxes included the aides and douanes both customs duties the gabelle salt tax and the taille land tax the taille was reduced at first and certain tax collection contracts were auctioned instead of being sold privately to a favoured few financial officials were required to keep regular accounts revising inventories and removing unauthorized exemptions up to 1661 only 10 per cent of income from the royal domain reached the king reform had to overcome vested interests the taille was collected by officers of the crown who had purchased their post at a high price and punishment of abuses necessarily lowered the value of the purchase nevertheless colbert achieved excellent results with the deficit of 1661 turning into a surplus by 1666 with interest on the debt decreasing from 52 million to 24 million livres the taille was reduced to 42 million in 1661 and 35 million in 1665 while revenue from indirect taxation progressed from 26 million to 55 million the revenues of the royal domain were raised from 80 000 livres in 1661 to 5 5 million in 1671 in 1661 the receipts were equivalent to 26 million british pounds of which 10 million reached the treasury the expenditure was around 18 million pounds leaving a deficit of 8 million in 1667 the net receipts had risen to 20 million pounds sterling while expenditure had fallen to 11 million leaving a surplus of 9 million pounds engraving of louis xiv money was the essential support of the reorganized and enlarged army the panoply of versailles and the growing civil administration finance had always been the weakness of the french monarchy tax collection was costly and inefficient direct taxes dwindled as they passed through the hands of many intermediate officials and indirect taxes were collected by private contractors called tax farmers who made a handsome profit the main economic weakness arose from an old bargain between the french crown and nobility the king might raise taxes on the nation without consent if only he exempted the nobility only the unprivileged classes paid direct taxes which came to mean the peasants only as most bourgeois finagled exemptions in one way or another the system laid the whole burden of state expenses on the backs of the poor and powerless after 1700 with the support of louis s pious secret wife madame de maintenon the king was persuaded to change his fiscal policy though willing enough to tax the nobles louis feared the political concessions which they would demand in return only towards the close of his reign under the extreme exigency of war was he able for the first time in french history to impose direct taxes on the aristocracy this was a step toward equality before the law and toward sound public finance though it was predictably diminished by concessions and exemptions won by the insistent efforts of nobles and bourgeois 33 louis and colbert also had wide ranging plans to grow french commerce and trade colbert s mercantilist administration established new industries and encouraged manufacturers and inventors such as the lyon silk manufacturers and the gobelins tapestry manufactory he invited manufacturers and artisans from all over europe to france such as murano glassmakers swedish ironworkers and dutch shipbuilders he aimed to decrease imports while increasing french exports hence reducing the net outflow of precious metals from france louis instituted reforms in military administration through michel le tellier and his son françois michel le tellier successive marquis de louvois they helped to curb the independent spirit of the nobility imposing order on them at court and in the army gone were the days when generals protracted war at the frontiers while bickering over precedence and ignoring orders from the capital and the larger strategic picture with the old military aristocracy noblesse d épée nobility of the sword monopolizing senior military positions and the higher ranks louvois modernized the army and reorganised it into a professional disciplined well trained force he was devoted to the soldiers material well being and morale and even tried to direct campaigns relations with the major colonies louis and his family portrayed as roman gods in a 1670 painting by jean nocret left to right louis s aunt henriette marie his brother philippe duke of orléans the duke s daughter marie louise d orléans and wife henriette anne stuart the queen mother anne of austria three daughters of gaston duke of orléans louis xiv the dauphin louis queen maria theresa anne marie louise d orléans la grande mademoiselle louis s legal reforms were enacted in his numerous great ordinances prior to that france was a patchwork of legal systems with as many traditional legal regimes as there were provinces and two co existing legal systems customary law in the north and roman civil law in the south 34 the great ordinance of civil procedure of 1667 the code louis was a comprehensive legal code imposing a uniform regulation of civil procedu...
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