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finery in iran corrosion of metallic components is a major factor of inefficiency in the refining process because it leads to equipment failure it is a primary driver for the refinery maintenance schedule corrosion related direct costs in the u s petroleum industry as of 1996 were estimated at us 3 7 billion 171 178 corrosion occurs in various forms in the refining process such as pitting corrosion from water droplets embrittlement from hydrogen and stress corrosion cracking from sulfide attack 179 from a materials standpoint carbon steel is used for upwards of 80 percent of refinery components which is beneficial due to its low cost carbon steel is resistant to the most common forms of corrosion particularly from hydrocarbon impurities at temperatures below 205 c but other corrosive chemicals and environments prevent its use everywhere common replacement materials are low alloy steels containing chromium and molybdenum with stainless steels containing more chromium dealing with more corrosive environments more expensive materials commonly used are nickel titanium and copper alloys these are primarily saved for the most problematic areas where extremely high temperatures and or very corrosive chemicals are present 180 corrosion is fought by a complex system of monitoring preventative repairs and careful use of materials monitoring methods include both offline checks taken during maintenance and online monitoring offline checks measure corrosion after it has occurred telling the engineer when equipment must be replaced based on the historical information they have collected this is referred to as preventative management online systems are a more modern development and are revolutionizing the way corrosion is approached there are several types of online corrosion monitoring technologies such as linear polarization resistance electrochemical noise and electrical resistance online monitoring has generally had slow reporting rates in the past minutes or hours and been limited by process conditions and sources of error but newer technologies can report rates up to twice per minute with much higher accuracy referred to as real time monitoring this allows process engineers to treat corrosion as another process variable that can be optimized in the system immediate responses to process changes allow the control of corrosion mechanisms so they can be minimized while also maximizing production output 170 in an ideal situation having on line corrosion information that is accurate and real time will allow conditions that cause high corrosion rates to be identified and reduced this is known as predictive management materials methods include selecting the proper material for the application in areas of minimal corrosion cheap materials are preferable but when bad corrosion can occur more expensive but longer lasting materials should be used other materials methods come in the form of protective barriers between corrosive substances and the equipment metals these can be either a lining of refractory material such as standard portland cement or other special acid resistant cement that is shot onto the inner surface of the vessel also available are thin overlays of more expensive metals that protect cheaper metal against corrosion without requiring much material 181 see also edit acid gas gas with acidic ph ap 42 compilation of air pollutant emission factors api oil water separator industrial wastewater processing device pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets biorefinery refinery that converts biomass to energy and other beneficial byproducts ethanol fuel type of biofuel butanol fuel fuel for internal combustion engines gas flare safety device for burning off flammable gas h bio diesel refining with vegetable oil industrial wastewater treatment processes for treating wastewater produced as an industrial by product k factor crude oil refining list of oil refineries natural gas processing industrial processes designed to 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