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ces had also considered collision course weapons like the german radio controlled concepts and launched project thumper in 1946 this was merged with another project wizard and emerged as the cim 10 bomarc in 1959 the bomarc had a range of over 500 km but it was quite expensive and somewhat unreliable 17 development of oerlikon s rsd 58 18 started in 1947 and was a closely held secret until 1955 early versions of the missile were available for purchase as early as 1952 19 but never entered operational service the rsd 58 used beam riding guidance which has limited performance against high speed aircraft as the missile is unable to lead the target to a collision point examples were purchased by several nations for testing and training purposes but no operational sales were made 20 nike ajax was the first operational sam system the soviet union began development of a sam system in earnest with the opening of the cold war joseph stalin was worried that moscow would be subjected to american and british air raids like those against berlin and in 1951 he demanded that a missile system to counter a 900 bomber raid be built as quickly as possible this led to the s 25 berkut system nato reporting name sa 1 guild which was designed developed and deployed in a rush program early units entered operational service on 7 may 1955 and the entire system ringing moscow was completely activated by june 1956 21 the system failed however to detect track and intercept the only overflight of the soviet capital moscow by a u 2 reconnaissance plane on july 5 1956 22 23 the s 25 was a static system but efforts were also put into a smaller design that would be much more mobile this emerged in 1957 as the famous s 75 dvina sa 2 guideline a portable system with very high performance that remained in operation into the 2000s 24 the soviet union remained at the forefront of sam development throughout its history and russia has followed suit sa 2 guideline surface to air missiles one of the most widely deployed sam systems in the world the early british developments with stooge and brakemine were successful but further development was curtailed in the post war era these efforts picked up again with the opening of the cold war following the stage plan of improving uk air defences with new radars fighters and missiles two competing designs were proposed for stage 1 based on common radar and control units and these emerged as the raf s bristol bloodhound in 1958 25 and the army s english electric thunderbird in 1959 26 a third design followed the american bumblebee efforts in terms of role and timeline and entered service in 1961 as the sea slug 27 war in vietnam edit see also list of us aircraft losses to missiles during the vietnam war a moment after an s 75 dvina sa 2 hits an f 105 over north vietnam the fighter bomber starts to spew flame an s 75 detonates directly below an rf 4c reconnaissance plane the crew ejected and were taken captive the vietnam war was the first modern war in which guided anti aircraft missiles seriously challenged highly advanced supersonic jet aircraft it would also be the first and only time that the latest and most modern air defense technologies of the soviet union and the most modern jet fighter planes and bombers of the united states confronted each other in combat if one does not count the yom kippur war wherein iaf was challenged by syrian sa 3s clarification needed 28 the usaf responded to this threat with increasingly effective means early efforts to directly attack the missiles sites as part of operation spring high and operation iron hand were generally unsuccessful but the introduction of wild weasel aircraft carrying shrike missiles and the standard arm missile changed the situation dramatically feint and counterfeint followed as each side introduced new tactics to try to gain the upper hand by the time of operation linebacker ii in 1972 the americans had gained critical information about the performance and operations of the s 75 via arab s 75 systems captured by israel and used these missions as a way to demonstrate the capability of strategic bombers to operate in a sam saturated environment their first missions appeared to demonstrate the exact opposite with the loss of three b 52s and several others damaged in a single mission 29 dramatic changes followed and by the end of the series missions were carried out with additional chaff ecm iron hand and other changes that dramatically changed the score 30 by the conclusion of the linebacker ii campaign the shootdown rate of the s 75 against the b 52s was 7 52 15 b 52s were shot down 5 b 52s were heavily damaged for 266 missiles 31 during the war the soviet union supplied 7 658 sams to north vietnam and their defense forces conducted about 5 800 launches usually in multiples of three by the war s end the u s lost a total of 3 374 aircraft in combat operations according to the north vietnamese 31 were shot down by s 75 missiles 1 046 aircraft or 5 6 missiles per one kill 60 were shot down by anti aircraft guns and 9 were shot down by mig fighters the s 75 missile system significantly improved the effectiveness of north vietnamese anti aircraft artillery which used data from s 75 radar stations 32 however the u s states only 205 of those aircraft were lost to north vietnamese surface to air missiles 33 smaller faster edit the osa was the first system to include search track and missiles all on a single mobile platform video of launch of poliment redut naval sam all of these early systems were heavyweight designs with limited mobility and requiring considerable set up time however they were also increasingly effective by the early 1960s the deployment of sams had rendered high speed high altitude flight in combat practically suicidal nb 2 the way to avoid this was to fly lower below the line of sight of missile s radar systems this demanded very different aircraft like the f 111 tsr 2 and panavia tornado consequently sams evolved rapidly in the 1960s as their targets were now being forced to fly lower due to the presence of the larger missiles engagements would necessarily be at short ranges and occur quickly shorter ranges meant the missiles could be much smaller which aided them in terms of mobility by the mid 1960s almost all modern armed forces had short range missiles mounted on trucks or light armour that could move with the armed forces they protected examples include the 2k12 kub sa 6 and 9k33 osa sa 8 mim 23 hawk rapier roland and crotale the introduction of sea skimming missiles in the late 1960s and 1970s led to additional mid and short range designs for defence against these targets the uk s sea cat was an early example that was designed specifically to replace the bofors 40 mm gun on its mount and became the first operational point defense sam 34 the american rim 7 sea sparrow quickly proliferated into a wide variety of designs fielded by most navies many of these are adapted from earlier mobile designs but the special needs of the naval role has resulted in the continued existence of many custom missiles manpads edit main article man portable air defense system starstreak laser guided surface to air missile of the british army as aircraft moved ever lower and missile performance continued to improve eventually it became possible to build an effective man portable anti aircraft missile known as a man portable air defense system manpads the first example was a royal navy system known as the holman projector used as a last ditch weapon on smaller ships the germans also produced a similar short range weapon known as fliegerfaust but it entered operation only on a very limited scale the performance gap between this weapon and jet fighters of the post war era was so great that such designs would not be effective by the 1960s technology had closed this gap to a degree leading to the introduction of the fim 43 redeye sa 7 grail and blowpipe rapid improvement in the 1980s led to second generation designs like the fim 92 stinger 9k34 strela 3 sa 14 igla 1 and starstreak with dramatically improved performance by the 1990s to the 2010s the chinese had developed designs drawing influence from these notably the fn 6 and the qw series through the evolution of sams improvements were also being made to anti aircraft artillery but the missiles pushed them into ever shorter range roles by the 1980s the only remaining widespread use was point defense of airfields and ships especially against cruise missiles by the 1990s even these roles were being encroached on by new manpads and similar short range weapons like the rim 116 rolling airframe missile general information edit surface to air missiles are classified by their guidance mobility altitude and range mobility maneuverability and range edit long range sams like the rim 161 are an important part of modern naval forces fk 3 the export version of the chinese hq 22 system of the serbian air force and air defence missiles able to fly longer distances are generally heavier and therefore less mobile this leads to three natural classes of sam systems heavy long range systems that are fixed or semi mobile medium range vehicle mounted systems that can fire on the move and short range man portable air defense systems manpads the david s sling stunner missile is designed for super maneuverability a three pulse motor activates only during the kill stage providing additional acceleration and maneuverability 35 modern long range weapons include the mim 104 patriot and s 300 systems which have effective ranges on the order of 150 km 93 mi and offer relatively good mobility and short unlimbering times these compare with older systems with similar or less range like the mim 14 nike hercules or s 75 dvina which required fixed sites of considerable size much of this performance increase is due to improved rocket fuels and ever smaller electronics in the guidance systems some very long range systems remain notably the russian s 400 which has a range of 400 km 250 mi 36 medium range designs like the rapier and 2k12 kub are specifically designed to be highly mobile with very fast or zero setup times many of these designs were mounted on armoured vehicles allowing them to keep pace with mobile operations in a conventional war once a major group unto itself medium range designs have seen less development since the 1990s as the focus has changed to unconventional warfare developments have also been made in onboard maneuverability israel s david s sling stunner missile is designed to intercept the newest generation of tactical ballistic missiles at low altitude the multi stage interceptor consists of a solid fuel rocket motor booster followed by an asymmetrical kill vehicle with advanced steering for super maneuverability during the kill stage a three pulse motor provides additional acceleration and maneuverability during the terminal phase 35 manpad systems first developed in the 1960s and proved themselves in battle during the 1970s manpads normally have ranges on the order of 3 km 1 9 mi and are effective against attack helicopters and aircraft making ground attacks against fixed wing aircraft they can be very effective forcing them to fly outside the missile s envelope and thereby greatly reducing their effectiveness in ground attack roles manpad systems are sometimes used with vehicle mounts to improve maneuverability like the avenger system these systems have encroached on the performance niche formerly filled by dedicated mid range systems ship based anti aircraft missiles are also considered to be sams although in practice it is expected that they would be more widely used against sea skimming missiles rather than aircraft citation needed virtually all surface warships can be armed with sams and naval sams are a necessity for all front line surface warships some warship types specialize in anti air warfare e g ticonderoga class cruisers equipped with the aegis combat system or kirov class cruisers with the s 300f fort missile system modern warships may carry all three types from long range to short range of sams as a part of their multi layered air defence guidance systems edit main article missile guidance fire control radar of iranian bavar 373 sam system israel s arrow 3 missiles use a gimbaled seeker for hemispheric coverage by measuring the seeker s line of sight propagation relative to the vehicle s motion they use proportional navigation to divert their course and line up exactly with the target s flight path 37 sam systems generally fall into two broad groups based on their guidance systems those using radar and those using some other means longer range missiles generally use radar for early detection and guidance early sam systems generally used tracking radars and fed guidance information to the missile using radio control concepts referred to in the field as command guidance through the 1960s the semi active radar homing sarh concept became much more common in sarh the reflections of the tracking radar s broadcasts are picked up by a receiver in the missile which homes in on this signal sarh has the advantage of leaving most of the equipment on the ground while also eliminating the need for the ground station to communicate with the missile after launch smaller missiles especially manpads generally use infrared homing guidance systems these have the advantage of being fire and forget once launched they will home on the target on their own with no external signals needed in comparison sarh systems require the tracking radar to illuminate the target which may require them to be exposed through the attack systems combining an infrared seeker as a terminal guidance system on a missile using sarh are also known like the mim 46 mauler but these are generally rare some newer short range systems use a variation of the sarh technique but based on laser illumination instead of radar these have the advantage of being small and very fast acting as well as highly accurate a few older designs use purely optical tracking and command guidance perhaps the best known example of this is the british rapier system which was initially an all optical system with high accuracy all sam systems from the smallest to the largest generally include identified as friend or foe iff systems to help identify the target before being engaged while iff is not as important with manpads as the target is almost always visually identified prior to launch most modern manpads do include it target acquisition edit a jasdf soldier uses the optical sight on the type 91 kai manpads to acquire a mock airborne target the prominent vertical metal devices on the left are the iff antennas a u s marine antiaircraft gunner aims his stinger at a location indicated by a spotter long range systems generally use radar systems for target detection and depending on the generation of system may hand off to a separate tracking radar for attack short range systems are more likely...
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