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nkara as its founder or reformer who considered worship of god with attributes saguna brahman as a journey towards ultimately realising god without attributes nirguna brahman atman self knowledge 197 198 the term smartism is derived from smriti texts of hinduism meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts 188 199 this hindu sect practices a philosophical jnana yoga scriptural studies reflection meditative path seeking an understanding of self s oneness with god 188 200 ethnicities prambanan hindu temple complex built in the 9th century java indonesia puja at pura besakih one of the most significant balinese hinduism temples see also hinduism in south asia southeast asia bali java vietnam and west hinduism is traditionally a multi or polyethnic religion on the indian subcontinent it is widespread among many indo aryan dravidian and other south asian ethnic groups 201 for example the meitei people tibeto burman ethnicity in the northeastern indian state manipur 202 in addition in antiquity and the middle ages hinduism was the state religion in many indianized kingdoms of asia the greater india from afghanistan kabul in the west and including almost all of southeast asia in the east cambodia vietnam indonesia partly philippines and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by buddhism and islam 203 204 except several still hindu minor austronesian ethnic groups such as the balinese 29 and tenggerese people 205 in indonesia and the chams in vietnam 206 also a small community of the afghan pashtuns who migrated to india after partition remain committed to hinduism 207 the indo aryan kalash people in pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which is closely related to ancient indo iranian religion and resembles the ancient vedic religion 208 while it has been related to greek religion due to an origin narrative which says that the kalash descend from alexander the great s greek soldiers the kalash speak an indo aryan language and their religion is closer to hinduism than to the religion of alexander s army 209 there are many new ethnic ghanaian hindus in ghana who have converted to hinduism due to the works of swami ghanananda saraswati and hindu monastery of africa 210 from the beginning of the 20th century by the forces of baba premananda bharati 1858 1914 swami vivekananda a c bhaktivedanta swami prabhupada and other missionaries hinduism gained a certain distribution among the western peoples 211 scriptures main article list of hindu texts see also śāstra pramāṇam the rigveda is the first among four vedas note 22 and is one of the oldest religious texts this rigveda manuscript is in sanskrit the ancient scriptures of hinduism are initially in vedic sanskrit and later in classical sanskrit these texts are classified into two śruti and smṛti shruti is apauruṣeyā lit not made of a man but revealed by the rishis lit seers and regarded as having the highest authority while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority 212 they are the two highest sources of dharma the other two being śiṣṭa āchāra sadāchara lit conduct of noble people and finally ātma tuṣṭi lit what is pleasing to oneself note 23 hindu scriptures were composed memorised and transmitted verbally across generations for many centuries before they were written down 213 214 shruti lit that which is heard 215 primarily refers to the vedas which form the earliest record of the hindu scriptures and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages rishis 216 there are four vedas rigveda samaveda yajurveda and atharvaveda each veda has been subclassified into four major text types the samhitas mantras and benedictions the aranyakas text on rituals ceremonies sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices the brahmanas commentaries on rituals ceremonies and sacrifices and the upanishads text discussing meditation philosophy and spiritual knowledge 217 218 219 220 the first two parts of the vedas were subsequently called the karmakāṇḍa ritualistic portion while the last two form the jñānakāṇḍa knowledge portion discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings 221 222 223 224 the upanishads are the foundation of hindu philosophical thought and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions 225 226 160 of the shrutis vedic corpus the upanishads alone are widely influential among hindus considered scriptures par excellence of hinduism and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions 225 158 indian philosopher sarvepalli radhakrishnan states that the upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance 227 there are 108 muktikā upanishads in hinduism of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars as principal upanishads 224 228 ramayana mahabharata the most notable of the smritis lit that which is remembered are the hindu epics and the puranas lit that which is ancient the epics consist of the mahabharata and the ramayana the bhagavad gita is an integral part of the mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of hinduism 229 it is sometimes called gitopanishad then placed in the shruti heard category being upanishadic in content 230 the puranas which started to be composed of c 300 ce onward 231 contain extensive mythologies and are central in the distribution of common themes of hinduism through vivid narratives the yoga sutras is a classical text for the hindu yoga tradition which gained renewed popularity in the 20th century 232 since the 19th century indian modernists have re asserted the aryan origins of hinduism purifying hinduism from its tantric elements 166 and elevating the vedic elements hindu modernists like vivekananda see the vedas as the laws of the spiritual world which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages 233 234 tantra are the religious scriptures that give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form in tantric tradition radha parvati durga and kali are worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms 235 the agamas in tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of shiva to shakti 236 while nigamas refers to the vedas and the teachings of shakti to shiva 236 in agamic schools of hinduism the vedic literature and the agamas are equally authoritative 237 238 beliefs temple wall panel relief sculpture at the hoysaleswara temple in halebidu representing the trimurti brahma shiva and vishnu prominent themes in hindu beliefs include but are not restricted to dharma ethics duties saṃsāra the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth life death and rebirth karma action intent and consequences moksha liberation from attachment and saṃsāra and the various yogas paths or practices 11 however not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of hindu beliefs beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain hindu beliefs and were also absent among early forms of hinduism which was characterised by a belief in an afterlife with traces of this still being found among various hindu beliefs such as śrāddha ancestor worship once formed an integral part of hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various folk hindu streams 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 purusharthas main article puruṣārtha see also diksha dharma artha kāma and mokṣa purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life classical hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life known as puruṣārthas dharma artha kama and moksha 246 247 dharma moral duties righteousness ethics main article dharma dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in hinduism 248 the concept of dharma includes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with rta the order that makes life and universe possible 249 and includes duties rights laws conduct virtues and right way of living 250 hindu dharma includes the religious duties moral rights and duties of each individual as well as behaviours that enable social order right conduct and those that are virtuous 250 dharma is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world it is the pursuit and execution of one s nature and true calling thus playing one s role in cosmic concert 251 the brihadaranyaka upanishad states it as nothing is higher than dharma the weak overcomes the stronger by dharma as over a king truly that dharma is the truth satya therefore when a man speaks the truth they say he speaks the dharma and if he speaks dharma they say he speaks the truth for both are one brihadaranyaka upanishad 1 4 xiv 252 253 in the mahabharata krishna defines dharma as upholding both this worldly and other worldly affairs mbh 12 110 11 the word sanātana means eternal perennial or forever thus sanātana dharma signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end 254 the nature of dharma is outlined and debated within the texts of the dharmasastra tradition of which the manusmriti is considered to be the first 255 artha the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life main article artha artha is the virtuous pursuit of means resources assets or livelihood for the purpose of meeting obligations economic prosperity and to have a fulfilling life it is inclusive of political life diplomacy and material well being the artha concept includes all means of life activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in wealth career and financial security 13 the proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in hinduism 256 257 a central premise of hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous pleasurable and fulfilling life where every person s needs are acknowledged and fulfilled a person s needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available artha then is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous pleasurable and fulfilling life 258 kāma sensory emotional and aesthetic pleasure main article kama kāma sanskrit pali काम means desire wish passion longing and pleasure of the senses the aesthetic enjoyment of life affection and love with or without sexual connotations 259 260 tantric depiction of loving embrace at a temple relief of khajuraho group of monuments madhya pradesh india a unesco world heritage site in contemporary indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire but in ancient indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure such as pleasure deriving from the arts the ancient indian epic the mahabharata describes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense when in harmony with the other goals of human life dharma artha and moksha 261 in hinduism kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma artha and moksha 262 mokṣa liberation freedom from suffering main article moksha moksha sanskrit मोक्ष romanized mokṣa or mukti sanskrit मुक्ति is the ultimate most important goal in hinduism moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow suffering and for many theistic schools of hinduism liberation from samsara a birth rebirth cycle a release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of hinduism 251 263 264 muktinath temple in mustang nepal considered one of the focal pilgrimage places for liberation moksha or nirvana due to the belief in hinduism that the atman is eternal and the concept of purusha the cosmic self or cosmic consciousness 265 death can be seen as insignificant in comparison to the eternal atman or purusha 266 differing views on the nature of moksha the meaning of moksha differs among the various hindu schools of thought advaita vedanta holds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence or self to be pure consciousness or the witness consciousness and identifies it as identical to brahman 267 268 more generally in the theistic schools of hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra while for other schools such as the monistic school moksha happens during a person s lifetime and is a psychological concept 269 267 270 271 268 according to deutsch moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being of self realization of freedom and of realizing the whole universe as the self 269 267 271 moksha when viewed as a psychological concept suggests klaus klostermaier 268 implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense this concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out 268 due to these different views on the nature of moksha the vedantic school separates this into two views jivanmukti liberation in this life and videhamukti liberation after death 268 272 273 karma and saṃsāra main article karma karma translates literally as action work or deed 274 and also refers to a vedic theory of moral law of cause and effect 275 276 the theory is a combination of 1 causality that may be ethical or non ethical 2 ethicisation that is good or bad actions have consequences and 3 rebirth 277 karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to their actions in the past these actions and their consequences may be in a person s current life or according to some schools of hinduism in past lives 277 278 this cycle of birth life death and rebirth is called saṃsāra liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace 279 280 hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances 281 the idea of reincarnation or saṃsāra is not mentioned in the early layers of historical hindu texts such as the rigveda 282 283 the later layers of the rigveda do mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth according to ranade 284 285 according to sayers these earliest layers of hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha offering food to the ancestors the later vedic texts such as the aranyakas and the upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation they show little concern with ancestor rites and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals 286 287 288 the idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in the upanishads of the late vedic period predating the buddha and the mahavira 289 290 concept of god main articles ishvara and god in hinduism hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs 69 291 web 11 its concept of god is complex and depends upon each individual and th...
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