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es from travelling on foot or part of the journey is on foot and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible 423 culture the term hindu culture refers to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion such as festivals and dress codes followed by the hindus which is mainly can be inspired from the culture of india and southeast asia architecture hindu architecture is the traditional system of indian architecture for structures such as temples monasteries statues homes market places gardens and town planning as described in hindu texts 424 425 the architectural guidelines survive in sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages these texts include the vastu shastras shilpa shastras the brihat samhita architectural portions of the puranas and the agamas and regional texts such as the manasara among others 426 427 by far the most important characteristic and numerous surviving examples of hindu architecture are hindu temples with an architectural tradition that has left surviving examples in stone brick and rock cut architecture dating back to the gupta empire these architectures had influence of ancient persian and hellenistic architecture 428 far fewer works of secular hindu architecture have survived into the modern era such as palaces homes and cities ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in india 429 studies on indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the mughal and indo islamic architecture particularly of northern and western india given their relative abundance in other regions of india particularly the south hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th century such as those exemplified by the temples ruined cities and secular spaces of the vijayanagara empire and the nayakas 430 431 the secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in india and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones further states harle it is in the reliefs on temple walls pillars toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found 432 art main article hindu art krishna with cows herdsmen and gopis hindu art encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to hinduism and have a long history of religious association with hindu scriptures rituals and worship hindu texts such as the bhagwata purana and the kama sutra outline 64 kinds of art forms that a person can master 433 calendar main article hindu calendar see also astronomical basis of the hindu calendar the hindu calendar panchanga sanskrit पञ्चाङ्ग or panjika is one of various lunisolar calendars that are traditionally used in the indian subcontinent and southeast asia with further regional variations for social and hindu religious purposes they adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on sidereal year for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the new year to start 434 of the various regional calendars the most studied and known hindu calendars are the shalivahana shaka based on the king shalivahana also the indian national calendar found in the deccan region of southern india and the vikram samvat bikrami found in nepal and the north and central regions of india both of which emphasise the lunar cycle their new year starts in spring in regions such as tamil nadu and kerala the solar cycle is emphasised and this is called the tamil calendar though tamil calendar uses month names like in hindu calendar and malayalam calendar and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium ce 434 435 a hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as panchangam पञ्चाङ्गम् which is also known as panjika in eastern india 436 the ancient hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the hebrew calendar the chinese calendar and the babylonian calendar but different from the gregorian calendar 437 unlike the gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles 354 lunar days 438 and nearly 365 solar days the hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month but inserts an extra full month once every 32 33 months to ensure that the festivals and crop related rituals fall in the appropriate season 437 435 the hindu calendars have been in use in the indian subcontinent since vedic times and remain in use by the hindus all over the world particularly to set hindu festival dates early buddhist communities of india adopted the ancient vedic calendar later vikrami calendar and then local buddhist calendars buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system 439 the buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of cambodia laos myanmar sri lanka and thailand are also based on an older version of the hindu calendar similarly the ancient jain traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the hindu calendar for festivals texts and inscriptions however the buddhist and jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the buddha and the mahavira s lifetimes as their reference points 440 441 442 the hindu calendar is also important to the practice of hindu astrology and zodiac system it is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting such as ekadashi 443 person and society varnas main article varna hinduism priests performing kalyanam marriage of the holy deities at bhadrachalam temple in telangana hindu society has been categorised into four classes called varṇas they are the brahmins vedic teachers and priests the kshatriyas warriors and kings the vaishyas farmers and merchants and the shudras servants and labourers 444 the bhagavad gītā links the varṇa to an individual s duty svadharma inborn nature svabhāva and natural tendencies guṇa 445 the manusmriti categorises the different castes web 17 some mobility and flexibility within the varṇas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system as has been pointed out by several sociologists 446 447 although some other scholars disagree 448 scholars debate whether the so called caste system is part of hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom 449 web 18 and various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was introduced by the british colonial regime which is indeed false as it existed even before the westerners came to india 450 a renunciant man of knowledge is usually called varṇatita or beyond all varṇas in vedantic works the bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food scholars like adi sankara affirm that not only is brahman beyond all varṇas the man who is identified with him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste 451 yoga a statue of shiva in yogic meditation main article yoga in whatever way a hindu defines the goal of life there are several methods yogas that sages have taught for reaching that goal yoga is a hindu discipline which trains the body mind and consciousness for health tranquility and spiritual insight 452 texts dedicated to yoga include the yoga sutras the hatha yoga pradipika the bhagavad gita and as their philosophical and historical basis the upanishads within the bhagavad gita yoga is a means with the four major margas paths of yoga as bhakti yoga the path of love and devotion karma yoga the path of right action rāja yoga the path of meditation and jñāna yoga the path of wisdom 453 an individual may prefer one or some yogas over others according to their inclination and understanding practice of one yoga does not exclude others the modern practice of yoga as exercise traditionally hatha yoga has a contested relationship with hinduism 454 symbolism some of the most prominent hindu symbols om left and the swastika right hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art architecture literature and worship these symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions the syllable om which represents the brahman and atman has grown to represent hinduism itself while other markings such as the swastika from the sanskrit स्वस्तिक romanized svastika a sign that represents auspiciousness 455 and tilaka literally seed on forehead considered to be the location of spiritual third eye 456 marks ceremonious welcome blessing or one s participation in a ritual or rite of passage 457 elaborate tilaka with lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination flowers birds animals instruments symmetric mandala drawings objects lingam idols are all part of symbolic iconography in hinduism 458 459 460 ahiṃsā and food customs main articles ahimsa vegetarianism in hinduism sattvic diet mitahara and jhatka a goshala or cow shelter at guntur a vegetarian thali hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā nonviolence and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings including plants and non human animals 461 the term ahiṃsā appears in the upanishads 462 the epic mahabharata 463 and ahiṃsā is the first of the five yamas vows of self restraint in patanjali s yoga sutras 464 hindu texts such as śāṇḍilya upanishad 465 and svātmārāma 466 467 recommend mitahara eating in moderation as one of the yamas virtuous self restraints according to hindu beliefs food affects the body mind and spirit 468 469 the bhagavad gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17 8 through 17 10 470 in accordance with ahiṃsā many hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life estimates of strict lacto vegetarians in india includes adherents of all religions who never eat any meat fish or eggs vary between 20 and 42 while others are either less strict vegetarians or non vegetarians 471 those who eat meat seek jhatka quick death method of meat production and dislike halal slow bled death method believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal 472 473 the food habits vary with region with bengali hindus and hindus living in himalayan regions or river delta regions regularly eating meat and fish 474 some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions 475 observant hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef hinduism specifically considers bos indicus to be sacred 476 477 478 the cow in hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure 479 and hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving 480 selfless sacrifice gentleness and tolerance 481 there are many hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat eggs and seafood 482 some hindus such as those belonging to the shaktism tradition 483 and hindus in regions such as bali and nepal 484 485 practise animal sacrifice 484 the sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food 486 in contrast the vaishnava hindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice 487 488 the principle of non violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon 489 and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice 490 institutions temple main articles hindu temple murti hindu iconography and hindu architecture for list of temples see list of hindu temples illustration of hindu temples in asia clockwise from top left kandariya mahadeva temple madhya pradesh chennakeshava temple karnataka jagannath temple puri odisha padmanabhaswamy temple kerala swaminarayan mandir vadtal gujarat a hindu temple is a house of god s 491 it is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of hinduism 492 a temple incorporates all elements of hindu cosmology the highest spire or dome representing mount meru reminder of the abode of brahma and the center of spiritual universe 493 the carvings and iconography symbolically presenting dharma kama artha moksha and karma 494 495 the layout the motifs the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals geometric symbolisms and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of hinduism 492 hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many hindus not all as well as landmarks for arts annual festivals rite of passage rituals and community celebrations 496 497 hindu temples come in many styles diverse locations deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs 498 two major styles of hindu temples include the gopuram style found in south india and nagara style found in north india web 19 web 20 other styles include cave forest and mountain temples 499 yet despite their differences almost all hindu temples share certain common architectural principles core ideas symbolism and themes 492 many temples feature one or more idols murtis the idol and grabhgriya in the brahma pada the center of the temple under the main spire serves as a focal point darsana a sight in a hindu temple 500 in larger temples the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the purusa brahman the universal essence 492 asrama kauai hindu monastery on kauaʻi island in hawaii is the only hindu monastery in north america main article āśrama stage traditionally the life of a hindu is divided into four āśramas phases or life stages another meaning includes monastery 501 the four ashramas are brahmacharya student grihastha householder vānaprastha retired and sannyasa renunciation 502 brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life grihastha refers to the individual s married life with the duties of maintaining a household raising a family educating one s children and leading a family centred and a dharmic social life 502 grihastha stage starts with hindu wedding and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context as hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life as well as the offsprings that continued mankind 503 vanaprastha is the retirement stage where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation took an advisory role and gradually withdrew from the world 504 505 the sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life generally without any meaningful property or home ascetic state and focused on moksha peace and simple spiritual life 506 507 the ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in hinduism 503 combined with four proper goals of human life purusartha the ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a hindu with fulfilling 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