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areas so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts 12 77 for example when yellowstone caldera last erupted some 650 000 years ago it released about 1 000 km 3 of material as measured in dense rock equivalent dre covering a substantial part of north america in up to two metres of debris 21 eruptions forming even larger calderas are known such as the la garita caldera in the san juan mountains of colorado where the 5 000 cubic kilometres 1 200 cu mi fish canyon tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27 8 million years ago 22 23 the caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff rhyolite and other igneous rocks 24 the caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff also called an ash flow sheet 25 26 if magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the valles caldera lake toba the san juan volcanic field 8 cerro galán 27 yellowstone 28 and many other calderas 8 because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event it can cause catastrophic environmental effects even small caldera forming eruptions such as krakatoa in 1883 29 or mount pinatubo in 1991 30 may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world large calderas may have even greater effects the ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the lake toba eruption in indonesia at some points in geological time rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters the remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the eocene rum complex of scotland 24 the san juan mountains of colorado formed during the oligocene miocene and pliocene epochs or the saint francois mountain range of missouri erupted during the proterozoic eon 31 valles edit valle caldera new mexico main article valles caldera for their 1968 paper 8 that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology 7 r l smith and r a bailey chose the valles caldera as their model although the valles caldera is not unusually large it is relatively young 1 25 million years old and unusually well preserved 32 and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera 7 the ash flow tuffs of the valles caldera such as the bandelier tuff were among the first to be thoroughly characterized 33 toba edit main articles lake toba and toba catastrophe theory about 74 000 years ago this indonesian volcano released about 2 800 cubic kilometres 670 cu mi dense rock equivalent of ejecta this was the largest known eruption during the ongoing quaternary period the last 2 6 million years and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years in the late 1990s anthropologist stanley ambrose 34 proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2 000 20 000 individuals resulting in a population bottleneck more recently lynn jorde and henry harpending proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5 000 10 000 people 35 there is no direct evidence however that either theory is correct and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction even in environmentally sensitive species 36 there is evidence that human habitation continued in india after the eruption 37 satellite photograph of the summit caldera on fernandina island in the galápagos archipelago oblique aerial photo of nemrut caldera van lake eastern turkey non explosive calderas edit sollipulli caldera located in central chile near the border with argentina filled with ice the volcano is in the southern andes mountains within chile s parque nacional villarica 38 some volcanoes such as the large shield volcanoes kīlauea and mauna loa on the island of hawaii form calderas in a different fashion the magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt which is silica poor as a result the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events the resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas for instance the caldera atop fernandina island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres 1 150 ft 39 extraterrestrial calderas edit since the early 1960s it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the solar system through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft volcanism has been discovered on venus mars the moon and io a satellite of jupiter none of these worlds have plate tectonics which contributes approximately 60 of the earth s volcanic activity the other 40 is attributed to hotspot volcanism 40 caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies though the size varies considerably the average caldera diameter on venus is 68 km 42 mi the average caldera diameter on io is close to 40 km 25 mi and the mode is 6 km 3 7 mi tvashtar paterae is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of 290 km 180 mi the average caldera diameter on mars is 48 km 30 mi smaller than venus calderas on earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1 6 80 km 1 50 mi as a maximum 41 the moon edit further information volcanism on the moon the moon has an outer shell of low density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick which formed due to a rapid creation the craters of the moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity but are currently believed to have been formed by meteorites nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the moon formed around 500 million years afterward the moon s mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters also eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust this forms a dome possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form 40 although caldera like structures are rare on the moon they are not completely absent the compton belkovich volcanic complex on the far side of the moon is thought to be a caldera possibly an ash flow caldera 42 mars edit further information volcanism on mars the volcanic activity of mars is concentrated in two major provinces tharsis and elysium each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots the surfaces are dominated by lava flows and all have one or more collapse calderas 40 mars has the tallest volcano in the solar system olympus mons which is more than three times the height of mount everest with a diameter of 520 km 323 miles the summit of the mountain has six nested calderas 43 venus edit further information volcanism on venus because there is no plate tectonics on venus heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere this causes enormous lava flows accounting for 80 of venus surface area many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150 400 km 95 250 mi in diameter and 2 4 km 1 2 2 5 mi high more than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km 37 mi across 40 io edit further information volcanism on io io unusually is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of jupiter and io s orbital resonance with neighboring large moons europa and ganymede which keep its orbit slightly eccentric unlike any of the planets mentioned io is continuously volcanically active for example the nasa voyager 1 and voyager 2 spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing io in 1979 io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across 40 list of volcanic calderas edit see also category calderas africa edit nasa false colour topographical relief image of nabro top and mallahle volcanic calderas centre left cape verde mount fogo fogo eritrea nabro volcano southern red sea region ethiopia erta ale afar region mallahle afar region kenya menengai crater great rift valley nakuru county mount elgon bungoma county and trans nzoia county shared on border with uganda mount longonot great rift valley nakuru county namibia brukkaros mountain ǁkaras region messum crater erongo region tanzania mount meru arusha region ngorongoro crater arusha region uganda mount elgon eastern region shared on border with kenya see europe for calderas in the canary islands and the azores antarctica edit satellite image of deception island by sentinel 2 march 2023 deception island kemp caldera asia edit caldera of mount tambora mount pinatubo philippines china dakantou caldera 大墈头 shanhuyan village taozhu town linhai zhejiang ma anshan caldera 马鞍山 shishan town 石山镇 xiuying hainan yiyang caldera 宜洋 shuangxi town 双溪镇宜洋村 pingnan county fujian indonesia batur bali krakatoa sunda strait lake maninjau sumatra lake toba sumatra mount rinjani lombok mount tondano sulawesi mount tambora sumbawa tengger caldera java japan aira caldera kagoshima prefecture kussharo hokkaido kuttara hokkaido mashū hokkaido aso caldera mount aso kumamoto prefecture kikai caldera kagoshima prefecture towada aomori prefecture tazawa akita prefecture hakone kanagawa prefecture korean peninsula mount halla jeju do south korea heaven lake baekdu mountain north korea changbai mountains china philippines apolaki caldera benham rise corregidor caldera manila bay mount pinatubo luzon taal caldera luzon laguna caldera luzon irosin caldera luzon turkey derik mardin nemrut volcano russia caldera of the island yankicha ushishir kuril islands akademia nauk kamchatka peninsula golovnin kuril islands karymsky caldera kamchatka peninsula karymshina kamchatka peninsula khangar kamchatka peninsula ksudach kamchatka peninsula kurile lake kamchatka peninsula pauzhetka caldera hosts kurile lake caldera kamchatka peninsula 44 lvinaya past kuril islands tao rusyr caldera kuril islands uzon kamchatka peninsula zavaritski caldera kuril islands yankicha ushishir kuril islands chegem caldera kabardino balkarian republic north caucasus europe edit 3d cgi aerial spinning view over santorini greece aerial view of the laacher see germany view of the phlegraean fields near naples italy caldeira do faial on the caldeira volcano faial island azores georgia bakuriani didveli caldera samsari germany laacher see greece santorini nisyros iceland askja grímsvötn bárðarbunga katla krafla italy phlegraean fields lake bracciano lake bolsena mount somma which contains mount vesuvius portugal lagoa das sete cidades furnas são miguel the azores caldeira do faial faial caldeirão do corvo corvo united kingdom glen coe scotland scafell caldera lake district england 45 slovakia banská štiavnica spain las cañadas tenerife canary islands north and central america edit coatepeque caldera el salvador crater lake crater lake oregon formed around 5 680 bc aniakchak caldera alaska canada silverthrone caldera british columbia mount edziza british columbia bennett lake volcanic complex british columbia yukon mount pleasant caldera new brunswick sturgeon lake caldera ontario mount skukum volcanic complex yukon blake river megacaldera complex quebec ontario new senator caldera quebec misema caldera ontario quebec noranda caldera quebec mexico la primavera caldera jalisco amealco caldera querétaro las cumbres caldera veracruz puebla los azufres caldera michoacán los humeros caldera veracruz puebla mazahua caldera mexico state el salvador lake ilopango lake coatepeque guatemala lake amatitlán lake atitlán xela barahona nicaragua masaya nicaragua united states mount aniakchak aniakchak national monument and preserve alaska cochetopa caldera colorado crater lake on mount mazama crater lake national park oregon mount katmai alaska kīlauea hawaii mauna loa hawaii la garita caldera colorado long valley california henry s fork caldera idaho island park caldera idaho wyoming mount ossippee new hampshire newberry volcano oregon mcdermitt caldera oregon medicine lake volcano california mount okmok alaska valles caldera new mexico yellowstone caldera wyoming indian ocean edit cirque de cilaos réunion cirque de mafate réunion cirque de salazie réunion enclos fouqué réunion oceania edit mokuʻāweoweo mauna loa s summit caldera covered in snow satellite photo of lake taupō australia cerberean cauldron 46 mount warning prospect hill hawaii kilauea hawaii us moku āweoweo caldera on mauna loa hawaii us new zealand kapenga lake ohakuri lake okataina lake rotorua lake taupō maroa otago harbour reporoa caldera papua new guinea dakataua polynesia rano kau easter island chile tonga hunga tonga hunga haʻapai south america edit aerial photograph of sollipulli caldera looking east argentina aguas calientes salta province caldera del atuel mendoza province galán catamarca province bolivia pastos grandes colombia arenas crater caldera nevado del ruiz volcano caldas department laguna verde caldera azufral volcano narino department chile chaitén cordillera nevada caldera laguna del maule pacana caldera sollipulli ecuador pululahua geobotanical reserve cuicocha quilotoa fernandina island galápagos islands sierra negra galápagos chacana caldera extraterrestrial volcanic calderas edit mars olympus mons caldera venus maat mons caldera erosion calderas edit americas guaichane mamuta chile mount tehama california us europe caldera de taburiente spain oceania tweed valley new south wales queensland australia asia chegem caldera kabardino balkarian republic northern caucasus region russia see also edit complex volcano landform of more than one related volcanic centre maar low relief volcanic crater somma volcano volcanic caldera that has been partially filled by a new central cone supervolcano volcano that has erupted with a volcanic explosivity index of 8 volcanic explosivity index vei predictive qualitative scale for explosiveness of volcanic eruptions pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets explanatory notes edit leopold von buch s book physical description of the canary isles was published in 1825 references edit caldera dictionary com unabridged online n d troll v r walter t r schmincke h u 1 february 2002 cyclic caldera collapse piston or piecemeal subsidence field and experimental evidence geology 30 2 135 38 bibcode 2002geo 30 135t doi 10 1130 0091 7613 2002 030 0135 cccpop 2 0 co 2 issn 0091 7613 1 2 gudmundsson magnús t jónsdóttir kristín hooper andrew holohan eoghan p halldórsson sæmundur a ófeigsson benedikt g cesca simone vogfjörd kristín s sigmundsson freysteinn högnadóttir thórdís einarsson páll sigmarsson olgeir jarosch alexander h jónasson kristján magnússon 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