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gnation in europe and delayed european recovery from the war for several years 358 359 at the bretton woods conference in july 1944 the allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post war world the agreement created the international monetary fund imf and the international bank for reconstruction and development ibrd which later became part of the world bank group the bretton woods system lasted until 1973 360 recovery began with the mid 1948 currency reform in west germany and was sped up by the liberalisation of european economic policy that the us marshall plan economic aid 1948 1951 both directly and indirectly caused 361 362 the post 1948 west german recovery has been called the german economic miracle 363 italy also experienced an economic boom 364 and the french economy rebounded 365 by contrast the united kingdom was in a state of economic ruin 366 and although receiving a quarter of the total marshall plan assistance more than any other european country 367 it continued in relative economic decline for decades 368 the soviet union despite enormous human and material losses also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post war era 369 having seized and transferred most of germany s industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states d 370 japan recovered much later 371 china returned to its pre war industrial production by 1952 372 impact main article historiography of world war ii casualties main article world war ii casualties bodies of chinese civilians killed by the imperial japanese army during the nanjing massacre in december 1937 an estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation famine and disease 373 374 375 376 civilian deaths have been estimated to comprise 67 377 to 80 378 of all direct and indirect deaths from the war the soviet union had the highest overall death toll estimated at 20 million to 28 million 379 followed by china at least 15 million 374 380 381 germany 6 million to 8 7 million 382 381 and poland 5 million to 6 5 million 374 381 the countries which sustained the most military deaths were the soviet union about 8 7 million 383 germany around 5 3 million 384 china 2 million to 3 million 385 386 and japan 1 7 million to 2 5 million 374 386 of the 20 million to 25 million military deaths in the war the majority were of german and soviet soldiers including prisoners of war pows on the eastern front 387 the high civilian death toll relative to military deaths was unusual for major wars up to that time 388 some 10 million to 15 million people died of starvation and disease in china and the soviet union and 8 million to 10 million in india and under japanese occupation elsewhere in asia and the pacific 389 around 15 million civilians died in genocides and other deliberate killings while millions in total died in concentration camps aerial bombings and in combat zones 390 genocide war crimes and crimes against humanity prisoner identity photograph of a polish girl taken by the german ss in auschwitz 391 approximately 230 000 children were held prisoner and used in forced labour and nazi medical experiments in trials following the war representatives of the axis powers and their accomplices were convicted of numerous war crimes crimes against humanity and complicity in genocides 392 the nazis killed about 6 million jews in a racially motivated genocide known as the holocaust they also killed millions of slavs over 130 thousand romani and members of other groups that they considered racially inferior 393 394 almost 300 000 people with mental and physical disabilities were also systematically killed in germany and its occupied territories 395 the killing of civilians and pows through massacres and deliberate starvation was especially common in the eastern european and asia pacific theatres german forces on the eastern front destroyed or confiscated available food massacred civilians in reprisals and routinely shot prisoners 396 392 the japanese killed millions of civilians in occupied areas through massacres and scorched earth strategies for example in their kill all burn all loot all policy in china 397 398 in the nanjing massacre between 40 000 and 200 000 chinese civilians and pows were killed 399 japan also used biological weapons in china and in early conflicts against the soviets 400 401 the soviet union was responsible for imprisoning deporting and often executing hundreds of thousands of civilians and pows from occupied or annexed territories 402 403 this included the katyn massacre of 22 000 polish officers and intellectuals 404 war crimes were also committed in civil wars and conflicts between resistance groups in occupied territories in yugoslavia numerous war crimes including the massacre of civilians and prisoners were committed by axis forces and the axis aligned croatian ustaše the main resistance groups the serbian nationalist chetniks and the communist led partisans also committed massacres and persecutions of their enemies 392 405 in poland about 100 000 poles were killed by the ukrainian insurgent army in the volhynia massacres between 1943 and 1945 about 10 000 ukrainians were killed by poles in reprisal attacks 406 in greece axis forces were mainly responsible for civilian deaths through deliberate starvation and reprisal massacres although the major resistance forces elas and edes also committed war crimes 407 392 the soviet union japan and germany inflicted high death rates on pows through executions starvation forced labour and other mistreatment the soviet union and japan had not ratified the geneva convention on prisoners of war and germany regarded itself as exempt from the convention on the eastern front 392 about a third of those taken prisoner by the japanese died as did almost 60 per cent of soviet prisoners of the germans about a third of germans taken prisoner by the soviet union died in captivity the mortality rate of german and japanese prisoners of the western allies was 1 to 2 per cent 408 409 schutzstaffel ss women camp guards removing prisoners bodies from lorries and carrying them to a mass grave inside the german bergen belsen concentration camp 1945 germany japan and the soviet union made extensive use of forced labour of foreign civilians and pows in greater germany there were 7 6 million foreign workers including pows undertaking forced labour and about 500 000 slave labourers in concentration camps by late 1944 410 those civilians and pows from soviet occupied territories who were deported to the soviet union were usually imprisoned in the soviet forced labour camps known as the gulag 402 between 200 000 and one million soviet pows and civilians repatriated from german camps were also sent to the gulag as alleged axis collaborators 411 392 where many died from malnutrition the harsh climate and overwork 403 402 the japanese conscripted millions of foreign civilians and pows to undertake forced labour in japan and its occupied territories where they suffered harsh treatment and high death rates 412 413 up to 200 000 korean and chinese women were forced into sex slavery 414 while troops of all the major belligerents committed rapes the rape of civilians was particularly widespread among the german japanese and soviet military the post war international military tribunals found the evidence of rape by german forces overwhelming twenty nine japanese defendants mostly generals were convicted of complicity in mass rape 415 soviet soldiers also committed mass rapes in occupied territories especially germany 416 417 war crimes were committed by the western allied powers but not on the same scale as those of the axis powers and the soviet union 392 the western allies prosecuted a number of war crimes committed by their own forces but allied war crimes were not prosecuted by the post war international military tribunals 418 392 there has been continued debate over whether the area bombing of cities in germany and japan and the atomic bombing of hiroshima and nagasaki were war crimes 419 392 occupation main articles german occupied europe resistance during world war ii collaboration with nazi germany and fascist italy collaboration with the empire of japan and nazi plunder polish civilians wearing blindfolds photographed just before being massacred by german soldiers in palmiry forest 1940 in europe occupation came in two forms in western northern and central europe france norway denmark the low countries and the annexed portions of czechoslovakia germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69 5 billion reichsmarks 27 8 billion us dollars by the end of the war this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products military equipment raw materials and other goods 420 thus the income from occupied nations was over 40 per cent of the income germany collected from taxation a figure which increased to nearly 40 per cent of total german income as the war went on 421 in the east the intended gains of lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front lines and soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the german invaders 422 unlike in the west the nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the inferior people of slavic descent most german advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes 423 the nazis killed an estimated 2 8 million ethnic poles in addition to polish jewish victims of the holocaust 424 although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories 425 the assessments of the effectiveness of soviet partisans 426 and french resistance 427 suggests that they did not significantly hamper german operations until late 1943 soviet partisans hanged by the german army the russian academy of sciences reported in 1995 that civilian victims in the soviet union at german hands totalled 13 7 million dead twenty per cent of the 68 million people in the occupied soviet union in asia japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the greater east asia co prosperity sphere essentially a japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples 428 although japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from european domination japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them 429 during japan s initial conquest it captured 4 000 000 barrels 640 000 m 3 of oil 550 000 tonnes left behind by retreating allied forces and by 1943 was able to get production in the dutch east indies up to 50 million barrels 7 900 000 m 3 of oil 6 8 million tonnes 76 per cent of its 1940 output rate 429 home fronts and production main articles military production during world war ii and home front during world war ii allies to axis gdp ratio throughout the war in the 1930s britain and the united states together controlled almost 75 of world mineral output essential for projecting military power 430 in europe before the outbreak of the war the allies had significant advantages in both population and economics in 1938 the western allies united kingdom france poland and the british dominions had a 30 per cent larger population and a 30 per cent higher gross domestic product than the european axis powers germany and italy including colonies the allies had more than a 5 1 advantage in population and a nearly 2 1 advantage in gdp 431 in asia at the same time china had roughly six times the population of japan but only an 89 per cent higher gdp this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 per cent higher gdp if japanese colonies are included 431 the united states produced about two thirds of all munitions used by the allies in world war ii including warships transports warplanes artillery tanks trucks and ammunition 432 although the allies economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of germany and japan they became the decisive factor by 1942 after the united states and soviet union joined the allies and the war evolved into one of attrition 433 while the allies ability to out produce the axis was partly due to more access to natural resources other factors such as germany and japan s reluctance to employ women in the labour force 434 allied strategic bombing 435 and germany s late shift to a war economy 436 contributed significantly additionally neither germany nor japan planned to fight a protracted war and had not equipped themselves to do so 437 germany japan and the soviet union used millions of slave labourers in war related industries 410 412 392 advances in technology and its application main article technology during world war ii a v 2 rocket launched from a fixed site in peenemünde 21 june 1943 aircraft were used for reconnaissance as fighters bombers and ground support and each role developed considerably innovations included airlift the capability to quickly move limited high priority supplies equipment and personnel 438 and strategic bombing the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy s ability to wage war 439 anti aircraft weaponry also advanced including defences such as radar and surface to air artillery in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze the use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide 440 advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war actions at taranto pearl harbor and the coral sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship 441 442 443 in the atlantic escort carriers became a vital part of allied convoys increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the mid atlantic gap 444 carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft 445 and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured 446 submarines which had proved to be an effective weapon during world war i 447 were expected by all combatants to be important in the second the british focused development on anti submarine weaponry and tactics such as sonar and convoys while germany focused on improving its offensive capability with designs such as the type vii submarine and wolfpack tactics 448 gradually improving allied technologies such as the leigh light hedgehog squid and homing torpedoes proved effective against german submarines 449 nuclear gadget being raised to the top of the detonation shot tower at alamogordo bombing range trinity nuclear test new mexico july 1945 land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of world war i which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry to increased mobility and combined arms the tank which had been used predom...
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