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g and the orbital maneuvers necessary to achieve rendezvous and docking with another spacecraft this left apollo free to pursue its prime mission without spending time developing these techniques all gemini flights were launched from launch complex 19 lc 19 at cape kennedy air force station in florida their launch vehicle was the titan ii glv a modified intercontinental ballistic missile note 1 gemini was the first program to use the newly built mission control center at the houston manned spacecraft center for flight control note 2 the project also used the agena target vehicle a modified atlas agena upper stage to develop and practice orbital rendezvous and docking techniques the astronaut corps that supported project gemini included the mercury seven the new nine and the fourteen during the program three astronauts died in air crashes during training including both members of the prime crew for gemini 9 the backup crew flew this mission gemini was robust enough that the united states air force planned to use it for the manned orbital laboratory mol program which was later canceled gemini s chief designer jim chamberlin also made detailed plans for cislunar and lunar landing missions in late 1961 he believed gemini spacecraft could fly in lunar operations before project apollo and cost less nasa s administration did not approve those plans in 1969 lukas bingham proposed a big gemini that could have been used to shuttle up to 12 astronauts to the planned space stations in the apollo applications project aap the only aap project funded was skylab the first american space station which used existing spacecraft and hardware thereby eliminating the need for big gemini pronunciation edit the constellation for which the project was named is commonly pronounced ˈ dʒ ɛ m ɪ n aɪ the last syllable rhyming with eye however staff of the manned spacecraft center including the astronauts tended to pronounce the name ˈ dʒ ɛ m ɪ n i rhyming with knee nasa s public affairs office then issued a statement in 1965 declaring jeh mih nee the official pronunciation 2 gus grissom acting as houston capsule communicator when ed white performed his spacewalk on gemini 4 is heard on flight recordings pronouncing the spacecraft s call sign jeh mih nee 4 and the nasa pronunciation is used in the 2018 film first man 2 program origins and objectives edit project gemini mission concept 1960 official nasa information film reel the apollo program was conceived in early 1960 as a three man spacecraft to follow project mercury jim chamberlin the head of engineering at the space task group stg was assigned in february 1961 to start working on a bridge program between mercury and apollo 3 he presented two initial versions of a two man spacecraft then designated mercury mark ii at a nasa retreat at wallops island in march 1961 3 scale models were shown in july 1961 at the mcdonnell aircraft corporation s offices in st louis 3 after apollo was chartered to land men on the moon by president john f kennedy on may 25 1961 it became evident to nasa officials that a follow on to the mercury program was required to develop certain spaceflight capabilities in support of apollo nasa approved the two man two vehicle program rechristened project gemini latin for twins in reference to the third constellation of the zodiac with its twin stars castor and pollux on december 7 1961 3 mcdonnell aircraft was contracted to build it on december 22 1961 4 the program was publicly announced on january 3 1962 with these major objectives 5 to demonstrate endurance of humans and equipment in spaceflight for extended periods at least eight days required for a moon landing to a maximum of two weeks to effect rendezvous and docking with another vehicle and to maneuver the combined spacecraft using the propulsion system of the target vehicle to demonstrate extra vehicular activity eva or space walks outside the protection of the spacecraft and to evaluate the astronauts ability to perform tasks there to perfect techniques of atmospheric reentry and touchdown at a pre selected location on land note 3 team edit all systems go 1963 official nasa promotional film reel chamberlin designed the gemini capsule which carried a crew of two he was previously the chief aerodynamicist on avro canada s cf 105 arrow fighter interceptor program 6 chamberlin joined nasa along with 25 senior avro engineers after cancellation of the canadian arrow program and became head of the u s space task group s engineering division in charge of gemini 6 7 the prime contractor was mcdonnell aircraft corporation which was also the prime contractor for the project mercury capsule 8 astronaut gus grissom was heavily involved in the development and design of the gemini spacecraft what other mercury astronauts dubbed gusmobile was so designed around grissom s 5 6 body that when nasa discovered in 1963 that 14 of 16 astronauts would not fit in the spacecraft the interior had to be redesigned 9 grissom wrote in his posthumous 1968 book gemini that the realization of project mercury s end and the unlikelihood of his having another flight in that program prompted him to focus all his efforts on the upcoming gemini program 9 project gemini mission review 1965 official nasa information film reel the gemini program was managed by the manned spacecraft center located in houston texas under direction of the office of manned space flight nasa headquarters washington d c dr george e mueller associate administrator of nasa for manned space flight served as acting director of the gemini program william c schneider deputy director of manned space flight for mission operations served as mission director on all gemini flights beginning with gemini 6a guenter wendt was a mcdonnell engineer who supervised launch preparations for both the mercury and gemini programs and would go on to do the same when the apollo program launched crews his team was responsible for completion of the complex pad close out procedures just prior to spacecraft launch and he was the last person the astronauts would see prior to closing the hatch the astronauts appreciated his taking absolute authority over and responsibility for the condition of the spacecraft and developed a good humored rapport with him 10 spacecraft edit a cutaway illustration of the gemini spacecraft the adapter module in white the reentry module in grey gemini 7 capsule in 1961 nasa selected mcdonnell aircraft which was the prime contractor for the project mercury capsule to build the gemini capsule the first of which was delivered in 1963 the spacecraft was 18 feet 5 inches 5 61 m long and 10 feet 3 0 m wide with a launch weight varying from 7 100 to 8 350 pounds 3 220 to 3 790 kg 11 the gemini crew capsule referred to as the reentry module was essentially an enlarged version of the mercury capsule unlike mercury the retrorockets electrical power propulsion systems oxygen and water were located in a detachable adapter module behind the reentry module which would burn up on reentry a major design improvement in gemini was to locate all internal spacecraft systems in modular components which could be independently tested and replaced when necessary without removing or disturbing other already tested components reentry module edit many components in the capsule itself were accessible through their respective small access doors unlike mercury gemini used completely solid state electronics and its modular design made it easy to repair 12 gemini s emergency launch escape system did not use an escape tower powered by a solid fuel rocket but instead used aircraft style ejection seats the tower was heavy and complicated and nasa engineers reasoned that they could do away with it as the titan ii s hypergolic propellants would burn immediately on contact a titan ii booster explosion had a smaller blast effect and flame than on the cryogenically fueled atlas and saturn ejection seats were sufficient to separate the astronauts from a malfunctioning launch vehicle at higher altitudes where the ejection seats could not be used the astronauts would return to earth inside the spacecraft which would separate from the launch vehicle 13 the main proponent of using ejection seats was chamberlin who had never liked the mercury escape tower and wished to use a simpler alternative that would also reduce weight he reviewed several films of atlas and titan ii icbm failures which he used to estimate the approximate size of a fireball produced by an exploding launch vehicle and from this he gauged that the titan ii would produce a much smaller explosion thus the spacecraft could get away with ejection seats unablated gemini heat shield ablated gemini heat shield maxime faget the designer of the mercury les was on the other hand less than enthusiastic about this setup aside from the possibility of the ejection seats seriously injuring the astronauts they would also only be usable for about 40 seconds after liftoff by which point the booster would be attaining mach 1 speed and ejection would no longer be possible he was also concerned about the astronauts being launched through the titan s exhaust plume if they ejected in flight and later added the best thing about gemini was that they never had to make an escape 14 the gemini ejection system was never tested with the gemini cabin pressurized with pure oxygen as it was prior to launch in january 1967 the fatal apollo 1 fire demonstrated that pressurizing a spacecraft with pure oxygen created an extremely dangerous fire hazard 15 in a 1997 oral history astronaut thomas p stafford commented on the gemini 6 launch abort in december 1965 when he and command pilot wally schirra nearly ejected from the spacecraft so it turns out what we would have seen had we had to do that would have been two roman candles going out because we were 15 or 16 psi pure oxygen soaking in that for an hour and a half you remember the tragic fire we had at the cape jesus with that fire going off and that it would have burned the suits everything was soaked in oxygen so thank god that was another thing nasa never tested it under the conditions that they would have had if they would have had to eject they did have some tests at china lake where they had a simulated mock up of gemini capsule but what they did is fill it full of nitrogen they didn t have it filled full of oxygen in the sled test they had 16 gemini was the first astronaut carrying spacecraft to include an onboard computer the gemini guidance computer to facilitate management and control of mission maneuvers this computer sometimes called the gemini spacecraft on board computer obc was very similar to the saturn launch vehicle digital computer the gemini guidance computer weighed 58 98 pounds 26 75 kg its core memory had 4096 addresses each containing a 39 bit word composed of three 13 bit syllables all numeric data was 26 bit two s complement integers sometimes used as fixed point numbers either stored in the first two syllables of a word or in the accumulator instructions always with a 4 bit opcode and 9 bits of operand could go in any syllable 17 18 19 20 unlike mercury gemini used in flight radar and an artificial horizon similar to those used in the aviation industry 17 like mercury gemini used a joystick to give the astronauts manual control of yaw pitch and roll gemini added control of the spacecraft s translation forward backward up down and sideways with a pair of t shaped handles one for each crew member translation control enabled rendezvous and docking and crew control of the flight path the same controller types were also used in the apollo spacecraft 9 gemini paraglider during tests at edwards air force base in august 1964 the original intention for gemini was to land on solid ground instead of at sea using a rogallo wing rather than a parachute with the crew seated upright controlling the forward motion of the craft to facilitate this the airfoil did not attach just to the nose of the craft but to an additional attachment point for balance near the heat shield this cord was covered by a strip of metal which ran between the twin hatches 21 this design was ultimately dropped and parachutes were used to make a sea landing as in mercury the capsule was suspended at an angle closer to horizontal so that a side of the heat shield contacted the water first this eliminated the need for the landing bag cushion used in the mercury capsule adapter module edit the adapter module in turn was separated into a retro module and an equipment module retro module edit the retro module contained four solid fuel te m 385 star 13 e retrorockets each spherical in shape except for its rocket nozzle which were structurally attached to two beams that reached across the diameter of the retro module crossing at right angles in the center 22 re entry began with the retrorockets firing one at a time abort procedures at certain periods during lift off would cause them to fire at the same time thrusting the descent module away from the titan rocket equipment module edit gemini was equipped with an orbit attitude and maneuvering system oams containing sixteen thrusters for translation control in all three perpendicular axes forward backward left right up down in addition to attitude control pitch yaw and roll angle orientation as in mercury translation control allowed changing orbital inclination and altitude necessary to perform space rendezvous with other craft and docking with the agena target vehicle atv with its own rocket engine which could be used to perform greater orbit changes early short duration missions had their electrical power supplied by batteries later endurance missions used the first fuel cells in crewed spacecraft gemini was in some regards more advanced than apollo because the latter program began almost a year earlier it became known as a pilot s spacecraft due to its assortment of jet fighter like features in no small part due to gus grissom s influence over the design and it was at this point where the us manned space program clearly began showing its superiority over that of the soviet union with long duration flight rendezvous and extravehicular capability note 4 the soviet union during this period was developing the soyuz spacecraft intended to take cosmonauts to the moon but political and technical problems began to get in the way leading to the ultimate end of their crewed lunar program launch vehicle edit main article titan ii glv the titan ii debuted in 1962 as the air force s second generation icbm to replace the atlas by using hypergolic fuels it could be stored longer and be easily readied for launch in addition to being a simpler design with fewer components the only caveat was the propellant mix nitrogen tetroxide and hydrazine were extremely toxic compared to the atlas liquid oxygen rp 1 however the titan had considerable difficulty being man rated due to early problems with pogo oscillation the launch vehicle...
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