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lu the control unit the memory and the input and output devices collectively termed i o these parts are interconnected by buses often made of groups of wires inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch each circuit represents a bit binary digit of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a 1 and when off it represents a 0 in positive logic representation the circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits input devices when unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices the data is processed and sent to output devices the input devices may be hand operated or automated the act of processing is mainly regulated by the cpu some examples of input devices are computer keyboard digital camera digital video graphics tablet image scanner joystick microphone mouse overlay keyboard real time clock trackball touchscreen light pen output devices the means through which computer gives output are known as output devices some examples of output devices are computer monitor printer pc speaker projector sound card video card control unit main articles cpu design and control unit diagram showing how a particular mips architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system the control unit often called a control system or central controller manages the computer s various components it reads and interprets decodes the program instructions transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer d control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance a key component common to all cpus is the program counter a special memory cell a register that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from e the control system s function is as follows this is a simplified description and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of cpu read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory or perhaps from an input device the location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code provide the necessary data to an alu or register if the instruction requires an alu or specialized hardware to complete instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation write the result from the alu back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device jump back to step 1 since the program counter is conceptually just another set of memory cells it can be changed by calculations done in the alu adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program instructions that modify the program counter are often known as jumps and allow for loops instructions that are repeated by the computer and often conditional instruction execution both examples of control flow the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program and indeed in some more complex cpu designs there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen central processing unit cpu main articles central processing unit and microprocessor the control unit alu and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit cpu early cpus were composed of many separate components since the 1970s cpus have typically been constructed on a single mos integrated circuit chip called a microprocessor arithmetic logic unit alu main article arithmetic logic unit the alu is capable of performing two classes of operations arithmetic and logic 91 the set of arithmetic operations that a particular alu supports may be limited to addition and subtraction or might include multiplication division trigonometry functions such as sine cosine etc and square roots some can operate only on whole numbers integers while others use floating point to represent real numbers albeit with limited precision however any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform therefore any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation although it will take more time to do so if its alu does not directly support the operation an alu may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values true or false depending on whether one is equal to greater than or less than the other is 64 greater than 65 logic operations involve boolean logic and or xor and not these can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic superscalar computers may contain multiple alus allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously 92 graphics processors and computers with simd and mimd features often contain alus that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices memory main articles computer memory and computer data storage magnetic core memory using magnetic cores was the computer memory of choice in the 1960s until it was replaced by semiconductor memory using mos memory cells a computer s memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read each cell has a numbered address and can store a single number the computer can be instructed to put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357 or to add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595 the information stored in memory may represent practically anything letters numbers even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease since the cpu does not differentiate between different types of information it is the software s responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers in almost all modern computers each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits called a byte each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers 2 8 256 either from 0 to 255 or 128 to 127 to store larger numbers several consecutive bytes may be used typically two four or eight when negative numbers are required they are usually stored in two s complement notation other arrangements are possible but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts a computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory the cpu contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area there are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of cpu registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed as data is constantly being worked on reducing the need to access main memory which is often slow compared to the alu and control units greatly increases the computer s speed computer main memory comes in two principal varieties random access memory or ram read only memory or rom ram can be read and written to anytime the cpu commands it but rom is preloaded with data and software that never changes therefore the cpu can only read from it rom is typically used to store the computer s initial start up instructions in general the contents of ram are erased when the power to the computer is turned off but rom retains its data indefinitely in a pc the rom contains a specialized program called the bios that orchestrates loading the computer s operating system from the hard disk drive into ram whenever the computer is turned on or reset in embedded computers which frequently do not have disk drives all of the required software may be stored in rom software stored in rom is often called firmware because it is notionally more like hardware than software flash memory blurs the distinction between rom and ram as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable it is typically much slower than conventional rom and ram however so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary f in more sophisticated computers there may be one or more ram cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically often without the need for any intervention on the programmer s part input output i o main article input output hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers i o is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world 94 devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals 95 on a typical personal computer peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse and output devices such as the display and printer hard disk drives floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices computer networking is another form of i o i o devices are often complex computers in their own right with their own cpu and memory a graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3d graphics citation needed modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main cpu in performing i o a 2016 era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry multitasking main article computer multitasking while a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously this is achieved by multitasking i e having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn 96 one means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead by remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt the computer can return to that task later if several programs are running at the same time then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second causing a program switch each time since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant this method of multitasking is sometimes termed time sharing since each program is allocated a slice of time in turn 97 before the era of inexpensive computers the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer seemingly multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input output devices to complete their tasks if a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard then it will not take a time slice until the event it is waiting for has occurred this frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss multiprocessing main article multiprocessing cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily some computers are designed to distribute their work across several cpus in a multiprocessing configuration a technique once employed in only large and powerful machines such as supercomputers mainframe computers and servers multiprocessor and multi core multiple cpus on a single integrated circuit personal and laptop computers are now widely available and are being increasingly used in lower end markets as a result supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored program architecture and from general purpose computers g they often feature thousands of cpus customized high speed interconnects and specialized computing hardware such designs tend to be useful for only specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once supercomputers usually see usage in large scale simulation graphics rendering and cryptography applications as well as with other so called embarrassingly parallel tasks software main article software software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form such as programs data protocols etc software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built computer software includes computer programs libraries and related non executable data such as online documentation or digital media it is often divided into system software and application software computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own when software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified such as with bios rom in an ibm pc compatible computer it is sometimes called firmware operating system system software unix and bsd unix system v ibm aix hp ux solaris sunos irix list of bsd operating systems linux list of linux distributions comparison of linux distributions microsoft windows windows 95 windows 98 windows nt windows 2000 windows me windows xp windows vista windows 7 windows 8 windows 8 1 windows 10 windows 11 dos 86 dos qdos ibm pc dos ms dos dr dos freedos macintosh operating systems classic mac os macos previously os x and mac os x embedded and real time list of embedded operating systems experimental amoeba oberon aos bluebottle a2 plan 9 from bell labs library multimedia directx opengl openal vulkan api programming library c standard library standard template library data protocol tcp ip kermit ftp http smtp file format html xml jpeg mpeg png user interface graphical user interface wimp microsoft windows gnome kde qnx photon cde gem aqua text based user interface command line interface text user interface application software office suite word processing desktop publishing presentation program database management system scheduling time management spreadsheet accounting software internet access browser email client web server mail transfer agent 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