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at deal of phonetic lexical and geographic variability this becomes all the more apparent considering social ethnolinguistic and regional varieties such as african american english chicano english cajun english or newfoundland english 159 american accent variation is increasing at the regional level and decreasing at the very local level 160 though most americans still speak within a phonological continuum of similar accents 161 known collectively as general american english ga with differences hardly noticed even among americans themselves including midland and western american english 162 163 164 canadian english varieties excepting those from atlantic canada and possibly quebec are generally considered to belong to the ga continuum although they often show raising of the vowels aɪ and aʊ before voiceless consonants and have distinct norms for writing and pronunciation as well 165 atlantic canadian english notably distinct from standard canadian english 166 comprises maritime english and newfoundland english it was influenced mostly by british and irish english as well as irish scottish gaelic and acadian french 167 in most american and canadian english dialects rhoticity or r fullness is dominant with non rhoticity or r dropping being associated with lower prestige and social class especially since the end of world war ii this contrasts with the situation in england where non rhoticity has become the standard 168 varieties beyond ga which have developed distinct sound systems include the southern american english new york city english eastern new england english and african american vernacular english aave groups all of which are historically non rhotic save a few varieties of southern american in southern american english the most populous grouping outside ga 169 rhoticity now strongly prevails replacing the region s historical non rhotic prestige 170 171 172 southern accents are colloquially described as a drawl or twang 173 being recognised most readily by the southern vowel shift initiated by glide deleting in the aɪ vowel e g pronouncing spy almost like spa the southern breaking of several front pure vowels into a gliding vowel or even two syllables e g pronouncing the word press almost like pray us 174 the pin pen merger and other distinctive phonological grammatical and lexical features many of which are actually recent developments of the 19th century or later 175 spoken primarily by working and middle class african americans african american vernacular english aave is largely non rhotic and likely originated among enslaved africans and african americans influenced primarily by the non standard older southern dialects a minority of linguists 176 contrarily propose that aave mostly traces back to african languages spoken by the slaves who had to develop a pidgin or english based creole to communicate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins 177 aave s important commonalities with southern accents suggest it developed into a highly coherent and homogeneous variety in the 19th or early 20th century aave is commonly stigmatised in north america as a form of broken or uneducated english as are white southern accents but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of english with their own norms shared by large speech communities 178 179 australia and new zealand an example of a man with a general australian accent an example of a south australian woman with a broad australian accent julia gillard an example of a queensland man with a cultivated australian accent geoffrey rush an example of a woman with a new zealand accent eleanor catton an example of a man with a new zealand accent john key since 1788 english has been spoken in oceania and australian english has developed as the first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of the australian continent its standard accent being general australian the english of neighbouring new zealand has to a lesser degree become an influential standard variety of the language 180 australian and new zealand english are each other s closest relatives with few differentiating characteristics followed by south african english and the english of south east england all of which have similarly non rhotic accents aside from some accents in the south island of new zealand australian and new zealand english stand out for their innovative vowels many short vowels are fronted or raised whereas many long vowels have been diphthongised australian english also has a contrast between long and short vowels that is not found in most other varieties australian english grammar aligns closely with british and american english like american english collective plural subjects take a singular verb for example the government is rather than are 181 182 new zealand english uses front vowels that are often even higher than those in australian english 183 184 185 southeast asia an example of a male teenager with a singaporean accent examples of a man and woman with filipino accents english is an official language of the philippines its use is ubiquitous in the country appearing on street signs marquees and government documents as well as in courtrooms public media the entertainment industry and the business sector it became an important and widely spoken language in the country during the period of american rule between 1898 and 1946 186 taglish is a prominent form of code switching between tagalog and english 187 africa the caribbean and south asia an example of a man with a south african accent an example of a woman with an educated nigerian accent chimamanda ngozi adichie an example of a woman and man with jamaican accents an example of a woman with an indian accent arundhati roy english is spoken widely in southern africa and is an official or co official language in several of the region s countries in south africa english has been spoken since 1820 co existing with afrikaans and various african languages such as the khoe and bantu languages today about nine per cent of the south african population speaks south african english sae as a first language sae is a non rhotic variety that tends to follow rp as a norm it is one of the few non rhotic english varieties that lack intrusive r the second language varieties of south africa differ according to the native languages of their speakers 188 most phonological differences from rp are in the vowels 189 consonantal differences include the tendency to pronounce p t t͡ʃ k without aspiration e g pin pronounced pɪn rather than pʰɪn as in most other varieties while r is often pronounced as a flap ɾ instead of as the more common fricative 190 nigerian english is a variety of english spoken in nigeria over 150 million nigerians speak some form of the language 191 though traditionally based on british english increasing united states influence during the latter part of the 20th century has resulted in american english vocabulary entering nigerian english additionally some new words and collocations have emerged from the variety out of a need to express concepts specific to the nation s culture e g senior wife 192 varieties of english are spoken throughout the former british colonial possessions in the caribbean including jamaica the leeward and windward islands trinidad and tobago barbados the cayman islands and belize each of these areas is home both to a local variety of english and a local english based creole combining english and african languages the most prominent varieties are jamaican english and jamaican creole in central america english based creoles are spoken on the caribbean coasts of nicaragua and panama 193 residents are often fluent in both the local english variety and the local creole languages and frequently code switch between them the relationship between different varieties can be conceptualised as a continuum in which more creole like or rp like forms function as more formal and informal registers of the language respectively 194 most caribbean varieties are based on british english and consequently most are non rhotic except for formal styles of jamaican english which are often rhotic jamaican english differs from rp in its vowel inventory which has a distinction between long and short vowels rather than tense and lax vowels as in standard english the diphthongs ei and ou are monophthongs eː and oː or even the reverse diphthongs ie and uo e g bay and boat pronounced bʲeː and bʷoːt often word final consonant clusters are simplified so that child is pronounced t͡ʃail and wind win 195 196 197 indian english historically tends towards rp as an ideal with the proximity of speakers to rp generally reflecting class distinctions indian english accents are marked by the pronunciation of phonemes such as t and d often pronounced with retroflex articulation as ʈ and ɖ and the replacement of θ and ð with dentals t̪ and d̪ sometimes indian english speakers may also use spelling based pronunciations where the silent h found in words such as ghost is pronounced as an indian voiced aspirated stop ɡʱ 198 non native varieties an example of a hispanophone man speaking english an example of a japanese man speaking english shinzo abe an example of a german man speaking english werner herzog non native english speakers may pronounce words differently because they have not fully mastered english pronunciation this can happen either because they apply the speech rules of their mother tongue to english interference or because they implement strategies similar to those used in first language acquisition they may create novel pronunciations for english sounds that do not exist in their first language 199 phonology this section contains phonetic transcriptions in the international phonetic alphabet ipa for an introductory guide on ipa symbols see help ipa english phonology and phonetics differ from one dialect to another usually without interfering with mutual communication phonological variation affects the inventory of phonemes speech sounds that distinguish meaning and phonetic variation consists in differences in pronunciation of the phonemes 200 this overview mainly describes received pronunciation rp and general american ga the standard varieties of the united kingdom and the united states respectively 201 202 203 consonants most english dialects share the same 24 consonant phonemes or 26 if marginal x and glottal stop ʔ are included the consonant inventory shown below is valid for california english 204 and for rp 205 consonant phonemes bilabial labiodental dental alveolar post alveolar palatal velar glottal nasal m n ŋ plosive p b t d k ɡ ʔ affricate tʃ dʒ fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ x h approximant median ɹ j w lateral l for pairs of obstruents stops affricates and fricatives such as p b tʃ dʒ and s z the first is fortis strong and the second is lenis weak fortis obstruents such as p tʃ s are pronounced with more muscular tension and breath force than lenis consonants such as b dʒ z and are always voiceless lenis consonants are partly voiced at the beginning and end of utterances and fully voiced between vowels fortis stops such as p have additional articulatory or acoustic features in most dialects they are aspirated pʰ when they occur alone at the beginning of a stressed syllable often unaspirated in other cases and often unreleased p̚ or pre glottalised ʔp at the end of a syllable in a single syllable word a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened e g nip has a noticeably shorter vowel phonetically not phonemically than nib nɪˑb̥ see below 206 lenis stops bin b̥ɪˑn about əˈbaʊt nib nɪˑb̥ fortis stops pin pʰɪn spin spɪn happy ˈhæpi nip nɪp̚ or nɪʔp in rp the lateral approximant l has two main allophones pronunciation variants the clear or plain l as in light and the dark or velarised ɫ as in full 207 ga has dark l in most cases 208 clear l rp light laɪt dark l rp and ga full fʊɫ ga light ɫaɪt all sonorants liquids l r and nasals m n ŋ devoice when following a voiceless obstruent and they are syllabic when following a consonant at the end of a word 209 voiceless sonorants clay kl̥eɪ̯ snow rp sn̥əʊ̯ ga sn̥oʊ̯ syllabic sonorants paddle ˈpad l̩ button ˈbʌt n̩ vowels tense vowels rp ga word i i n ee d u u f oo d eɪ b ay əʊ oʊ r oa d aɪ cr y aʊ c ow ɔɪ b oy ɪə ɪɹ p eer eə ɛɹ p air ʊə ʊɹ p oor lax vowels and other monophthongs rp ga word ɪ b i d e ɛ b e d æ b a ck ɑː ɑ br a ɒ b o x ɔ ɑ cl o th ɔː p aw ʊ g oo d ʌ ə b u t ə comm a ɜː ɜɹ b ir d the pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker s accent the accompanying table below lists the vowel phonemes in rp and ga with example words from lexical sets the vowels are represented with symbols from the international phonetic alphabet those given for rp are standard in british dictionaries and other publications 210 in rp vowel length is phonemic long vowels are marked with a triangular colon ː in the table above such as the vowel of need niːd as opposed to bid bɪd 211 in ga vowel length is non distinctive 212 in both rp and ga vowels are phonetically shortened before fortis consonants in the same syllable like t tʃ f but not before lenis consonants like d dʒ v or in open syllables thus the vowels of rich rɪtʃ neat nit and safe seɪ̯f are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ridge rɪˑdʒ need niˑd and save seˑɪ̯v and the vowel of light laɪ̯t is shorter than that of lie laˑɪ̯ because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis 213 the vowel ə only occurs in unstressed syllables and is more open in quality in stem final positions 214 215 some dialects do not contrast ɪ and ə in unstressed positions such that rabbit and abbot rhyme and lenin and lennon are homophonous a dialectal feature called the weak vowel merger 216 ga ɜr and ər are realised as an r coloured vowel ɚ as in further ˈfɚðɚ phonemically ˈfɜrðər which in rp is realised as ˈfəːðə phonemically ˈfɜːðə 217 phonotactics an english syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound syllable onset and coda start and end are optional a syllable can start with up to three consonant sounds as in sprint sprɪnt and end with up to five as in for some dialects angsts aŋksts this gives an english syllable a structure of ccc v ccccc where c represents a consonant and v a vowel the word strengths strɛŋθs is thus close to the most complex syllable possible in english the consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted as is the order in which they may appear onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters a stop and approximant as in play a voiceless fricative and approximant as in fly or sly s and a voiceless stop as in stay and s a voiceless stop and an approximant as in string 218 clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing and clusters of sibilants and o...
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