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nalogical statement of how humans and god address and relate to each other namely god is seen as begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds to the active as opposed to the receptive role in sexual intercourse 99 biblical sources usually refer to god using male or paternal words and symbolism notable exceptions include genesis 1 26 27 100 101 psalm 123 2 3 and luke 15 8 10 female hosea 11 3 4 deuteronomy 32 18 isaiah 66 13 isaiah 49 15 isaiah 42 14 psalm 131 2 a mother deuteronomy 32 11 12 a mother eagle and matthew 23 37 and luke 13 34 a mother hen in sikhism god is ajuni without incarnations which means that god is not bound to any physical forms this concludes that the all pervading lord is gender less 102 however the guru granth sahib constantly refers to god as he and father with some exceptions typically because the guru granth sahib was written in north indian indo aryan languages mixture of punjabi and sant bhasha sanskrit with influences of persian which have no neutral gender from further insights into the sikh philosophy it can be deduced that god is sometimes referred to as the husband to the soul brides in order to make a patriarchal society understand what the relationship with god is like also god is considered to be the father mother and companion 103 existence main article existence of god see also atheism and agnosticism the system of nature 1770 argues that belief in god is based on fear lack of understanding and anthropomorphism the existence of god and the nature of god are subjects of debate in theology philosophy of religion and popular culture 104 in philosophical terms the question of the existence of god involves the disciplines of epistemology the nature and scope of knowledge and ontology study of the nature of being or existence and the theory of value since some definitions of god include perfection ontological arguments refer to any argument for the existence of god that is based on a priori reasoning 105 notable ontological arguments were formulated by anselm and rené descartes 106 cosmological arguments use concepts around the origin of the universe to argue for the existence of god the teleological argument also called argument from design uses the complexity within the universe as a proof of the existence of god 107 it is countered that the fine tuning required for a stable universe with life on earth is illusory as humans are only able to observe the small part of this universe that succeeded in making such observation possible called the anthropic principle and so would not learn of for example life on other planets or of universes that did not occur because of different laws of physics 108 non theists have argued that complex processes that have natural explanations yet to be discovered are referred to the supernatural called god of the gaps other theists such as john henry newman who believed theistic evolution was acceptable have also argued against versions of the teleological argument and held that it is limiting of god to view him having to only intervene specially in some instances rather than having complex processes designed to create order 109 the argument from beauty states that this universe happens to contain special beauty in it and that there would be no particular reason for this over aesthetic neutrality other than god 110 this has been countered by pointing to the existence of ugliness in the universe 111 this has also been countered by arguing that beauty has no objective reality and so the universe could be seen as ugly or that humans have made what is more beautiful than nature 112 the argument from morality argues for the existence of god given the assumption of the objective existence of morals 113 while prominent non theistic philosophers such as the atheist j l mackie agreed that the argument is valid they disagreed with its premises david hume argued that there is no basis to believe in objective moral truths while biologist e o wilson theorized that the feelings of morality are a by product of natural selection in humans and would not exist independent of the mind 114 philosopher michael lou martin argued that a subjective account for morality can be acceptable similar to the argument from morality is the argument from conscience which argues for the existence of god given the existence of a conscience that informs of right and wrong even against prevailing moral codes philosopher john locke instead argued that conscience is a social construct and thus could lead to contradicting morals 115 atheism is in a broad sense the rejection of belief in the existence of deities 116 117 agnosticism is the view that the truth values of certain claims especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether god the divine or the supernatural exist are unknown and perhaps unknowable 118 119 120 121 theism generally holds that god exists objectively and independently of human thought and is sometimes used to refer to any belief in god or gods some view the existence of god as an empirical question richard dawkins states that a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without and it would be a scientific difference 122 carl sagan argued that the doctrine of a creator of the universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could disprove the existence of a creator not necessarily a god would be the discovery that the universe is infinitely old 123 some theologians such as alister mcgrath argue that the existence of god is not a question that can be answered using the scientific method 124 125 agnostic stephen jay gould argued that science and religion are not in conflict and proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called non overlapping magisteria noma 126 in this view questions of the supernatural such as those relating to the existence and nature of god are non empirical and are the proper domain of theology the methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value in this view the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the natural world 127 stephen hawking and co author leonard mlodinow state in their 2010 book the grand design that it is reasonable to ask who or what created the universe but if the answer is god then the question has merely been deflected to that of who created god both authors claim however that it is possible to answer these questions purely within the realm of science and without invoking divine beings 128 129 non theistic views religious traditions jainism has generally rejected creationism holding that soul substances jīva are uncreated and that time is beginningless 130 some interpretations and traditions of buddhism can be conceived as being non theistic buddhism has generally rejected the specific monotheistic view of a creator deity the buddha criticizes the theory of creationism in the early buddhist texts 131 132 also major indian buddhist philosophers such as nagarjuna vasubandhu dharmakirti and buddhaghosa consistently critiqued creator god views put forth by hindu thinkers 133 134 135 however as a non theistic religion buddhism leaves the existence of a supreme deity ambiguous there are significant numbers of buddhists who believe in god and there are equally large numbers who deny god s existence or are unsure 136 137 chinese religions such as confucianism and taoism are silent on the existence of creator gods however keeping with the tradition of ancestor veneration in china adherents worship the spirits of people such as confucius and laozi in a similar manner to god 138 139 anthropology see also evolutionary origin of religion evolutionary psychology of religion and anthropomorphism some atheists have argued that a single omniscient god who is imagined to have created the universe and is particularly attentive to the lives of humans has been imagined and embellished over generations 140 pascal boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world in general supernatural beings tend to behave much like people the construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion he cites examples from greek mythology which is in his opinion more like a modern soap opera than other religious systems 141 bertrand du castel and timothy jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that boyer s explanatory model matches physics epistemology in positing not directly observable entities as intermediaries 142 anthropologist stewart guthrie contends that people project human features onto non human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar sigmund freud also suggested that god concepts are projections of one s father 143 likewise émile durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings in line with this reasoning psychologist matt rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality in small groups morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation however it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much larger groups rossano indicates that by including ever watchful gods and spirits humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups 144 neuroscience and psychology see also jungian interpretation of religion johns hopkins researchers studying the effects of the spirit molecule dmt which is both an endogenous molecule in the human brain and the active molecule in the psychedelic ayahuasca found that a large majority of respondents said dmt brought them into contact with a conscious intelligent benevolent and sacred entity and describe interactions that oozed joy trust love and kindness more than half of those who had previously self identified as atheists described some type of belief in a higher power or god after the experience 145 about a quarter of those afflicted by temporal lobe seizures experience what is described as a religious experience 146 and may become preoccupied by thoughts of god even if they were not previously neuroscientist v s ramachandran hypothesizes that seizures in the temporal lobe which is closely connected to the emotional center of the brain the limbic system may lead to those afflicted to view even banal objects with heightened meaning 147 psychologists studying feelings of awe found that participants feeling awe after watching scenes of natural wonders become more likely to believe in a supernatural being and to see events as the result of design even when given randomly generated numbers 148 see also mythology portal philosophy portal religion portal apatheism apeiron cosmology god complex playing god ethics relationship between religion and science third man factor references this article contains one or more duplicated citations the reason given is duplicatereferences script detected https doi org 10 1007 2fbf00235404 refs 87 89 it is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times august 2026 learn how and when to remove this message 1 2 3 4 5 swinburne r g 1995 god in honderich ted ed the oxford companion to philosophy oxford university press bordwell david 2002 catechism of the catholic church continuum p 84 isbn 978 0 860 12324 8 catechism of the catholic church archived from the original on 3 march 2013 retrieved 30 december 2016 via intratext 1 2 plantinga alvin god arguments for the existence of routledge encyclopedia of philosophy routledge 2000 religion cambridge university press religion merriam webster god dictionary cambridge org 10 june 2026 retrieved 16 june 2026 the ulterior etymology is disputed apart from the unlikely hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue the oteut ghuba implies as its preteut type either ghodho m or ghodto m the former does not appear to admit of explanation but the latter would represent the neut pple of a root gheu there are two aryan roots of the required form g heu with palatal aspirate one with meaning to invoke skr hu the other to pour to offer sacrifice skr hu gr χεηi ν oe geotàn yete v oxford english dictionary compact edition g p 267 barnhart robert k 1995 the barnhart concise dictionary of etymology the origins of american english words p 323 harpercollins isbn 0062700847 webster s new world dictionary god n me middle english oe old english akin to ger gott goth guth prob ie base ĝhau to call out to invoke sans havaté he calls upon 1 any of various beings conceived of as supernatural immortal and having special powers over the lives and affairs of people and the course of nature deity esp a male deity typically considered objects of worship 2 an image that is worshiped idol 3 a person or thing deified or excessively honored and admired 4 g in monotheistic religions the creator and ruler of the universe regarded as eternal infinite all powerful and all knowing supreme being the almighty dictionary com archived 19 april 2009 at the wayback machine god gɒd noun 1 the one supreme being the creator and ruler of the universe 2 the supreme being considered with reference to a particular attribute 3 lowercase one of several deities esp a male deity presiding over some portion of worldly affairs 4 often lowercase a supreme being according to some particular conception the god of mercy 5 christian science the supreme being understood as life truth love mind soul spirit principle 6 lowercase an image of a deity an idol 7 lowercase any deified person or object 8 often lowercase gods theater 8a the upper balcony in a theater 8b the 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christian theology an introduction blackwell p 2...
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