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f running several programs simultaneously this is achieved by multitasking i e having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn 96 one means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead by remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt the computer can return to that task later if several programs are running at the same time then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second causing a program switch each time since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant this method of multitasking is sometimes termed time sharing since each program is allocated a slice of time in turn 97 before the era of inexpensive computers the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer seemingly multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input output devices to complete their tasks if a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard then it will not take a time slice until the event it is waiting for has occurred this frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss multiprocessing main article multiprocessing cray designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily some computers are designed to distribute their work across several cpus in a multiprocessing configuration a technique once employed in only large and powerful machines such as supercomputers mainframe computers and servers multiprocessor and multi core multiple cpus on a single integrated circuit personal and laptop computers are now widely available and are being increasingly used in lower end markets as a result supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored program architecture and from general purpose computers g they often feature thousands of cpus customized high speed interconnects and specialized computing hardware such designs tend to be useful for only specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once supercomputers usually see usage in large scale simulation graphics rendering and cryptography applications as well as with other so called embarrassingly parallel tasks software main article software software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form such as programs data protocols etc software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built computer software includes computer programs libraries and related non executable data such as online documentation or digital media it is often divided into system software and application software computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own when software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified such as with bios rom in an ibm pc compatible computer it is sometimes called firmware operating system system software unix and bsd unix system v ibm aix hp ux solaris sunos irix list of bsd operating systems linux list of linux distributions comparison of linux distributions microsoft windows windows 95 windows 98 windows nt windows 2000 windows me windows xp windows vista windows 7 windows 8 windows 8 1 windows 10 windows 11 dos 86 dos qdos ibm pc dos ms dos dr dos freedos macintosh operating systems classic mac os macos previously os x and mac os x embedded and real time list of embedded operating systems experimental amoeba oberon aos bluebottle a2 plan 9 from bell labs library multimedia directx opengl openal vulkan api programming library c standard library standard template library data protocol tcp ip kermit ftp http smtp file format html xml jpeg mpeg png user interface graphical user interface wimp microsoft windows gnome kde qnx photon cde gem aqua text based user interface command line interface text user interface application software office suite word processing desktop publishing presentation program database management system scheduling time management spreadsheet accounting software internet access browser email client web server mail transfer agent instant messaging design and manufacturing computer aided design computer aided manufacturing plant management robotic manufacturing supply chain management graphics raster graphics editor vector graphics editor 3d modeler animation editor 3d computer graphics video editing image processing audio digital audio editor audio playback mixing audio synthesis computer music software engineering compiler assembler interpreter debugger text editor integrated development environment software performance analysis revision control software configuration management educational edutainment educational game serious game flight simulator games strategy arcade puzzle simulation first person shooter platform massively multiplayer interactive fiction misc artificial intelligence antivirus software malware scanner installer package management systems file manager languages there are thousands of different programming languages some intended for general purpose others useful for only highly specialized applications programming languages lists of programming languages timeline of programming languages list of programming languages by category generational list of programming languages list of programming languages non english based programming languages commonly used assembly languages arm mips x86 commonly used high level programming languages ada basic c c c cobol fortran pl i rexx java lisp pascal object pascal commonly used scripting languages bourne script javascript python ruby php perl programs the defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed that is to say that some type of instructions the program can be given to the computer and it will process them modern computers based on the von neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language in practical terms a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example a typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second gigaflops and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors stored program architecture main articles computer program and computer programming replica of the manchester baby the world s first electronic stored program computer at the museum of science and industry in manchester england this section applies to most common ram machine based computers in most cases computer instructions are simple add one number to another move some data from one location to another send a message to some external device etc these instructions are read from the computer s memory and are generally carried out executed in the order they were given however there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there these are called jump instructions or branches furthermore jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that remembers the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction program execution might be likened to reading a book while a person will normally read each word and line in sequence they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest similarly a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met this is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention comparatively a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses but to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1 000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time with a near certainty of making a mistake on the other hand a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions the following example is written in the mips assembly language begin addi 8 0 0 initialize sum to 0 addi 9 0 1 set first number to add 1 loop slti 10 9 1000 check if the number is less than 1000 beq 10 0 finish if odd number is greater than n then exit add 8 8 9 update sum addi 9 9 1 get next number j loop repeat the summing process finish add 2 8 0 put sum in output register once told to run this program the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention it will almost never make a mistake and a modern pc can complete the task in a fraction of a second machine code in most computers individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number its operation code or opcode for short the command to add two numbers together would have one opcode the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on the simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from each with a unique numerical code since the computer s memory is able to store numbers it can also store the instruction codes this leads to the important fact that entire programs which are just lists of these instructions can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data the fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer s memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von neumann or stored program architecture 99 100 in some cases a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on this is called the harvard architecture after the harvard mark i computer modern von neumann computers display some traits of the harvard architecture in their designs such as in cpu caches while it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers machine language and while this technique was used with many early computers h it is extremely tedious and potentially error prone to do so in practice especially for complicated programs instead each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember a mnemonic such as add sub mult or jump these mnemonics are collectively known as a computer s assembly language converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand machine language is usually done by a computer program called an assembler a 1970s punched card containing one line from a fortran program the card reads z 1 y w 1 and is labeled proj039 for identification purposes programming language main article programming language programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run unlike natural languages programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise they are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud they are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run or translated directly at run time by an interpreter sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques low level languages main article low level programming language machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them collectively termed low level programming languages are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer s central processing unit cpu for instance an arm architecture cpu such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand held videogame cannot understand the machine language of an x86 cpu that might be in a pc i historically a significant number of other cpu architectures were created and saw extensive use notably including the mos technology 6502 and 6510 in addition to the zilog z80 high level languages main article high level programming language although considerably easier than in machine language writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone therefore most practical programs are written in more abstract high level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently and thereby help reduce programmer error high level languages are usually compiled into machine language or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language using another computer program called a compiler j high level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language and more related to the language and structure of the problem s to be solved by the final program it is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer this is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles program design this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed july 2012 learn how and when to remove this template message program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem collection of inputs using the programming constructs within languages devising or using established procedures and algorithms providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable as problems become larger and more complex features such as subprograms modules formal documentation and new paradigms such as object oriented programming are encountered la...
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