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e in subordinate clauses e g subjunctive it is important that he run every day imperative run 283 an infinitive form that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition to is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterite form in clauses with auxiliary verbs they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause 286 for example he has to go where only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the main verb to go is in the infinitive or in a complement clause such as i saw him leave where the main verb is see which is in a preterite form and leave is in the infinitive phrasal verbs english also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called phrasal verbs verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle that follows the verb the phrase then functions as a single predicate in terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb but in writing it is written as a separate word examples of phrasal verbs are to get up to ask out to get together and to put up with the phrasal verb frequently has a highly idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement e g lay off meaning terminate someone s employment 287 some grammarians do not consider this type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and hence refrain from using the term phrasal verb instead they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement e g he woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains are syntactically equivalent 288 adverbs the function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs 249 many english adverbs are derived from adjectives by appending the suffix ly for example in the phrase the woman walked quickly the adverb quickly is derived from the adjective quick some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms such as good which has the adverbial form well 289 syntax in the english sentence the cat sat on the mat the subject is the cat a noun phrase the verb is sat and on the mat is a prepositional phrase composed of a noun phrase the mat headed by the preposition on modern english syntax is moderately analytic 290 it has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions negative polarity the passive voice and progressive aspect 291 basic constituent order english has moved from the germanic verb second v2 word order to being almost exclusively subject verb object svo 292 the combination of svo order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence such as he had been hoping to try opening it 293 in most sentences english only marks grammatical relations through word order 294 the subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it the grammatical roles of each constituent are marked only by the position relative to the verb s v o the dog bites the man the man bites the dog an exception is found in sentences where one of the constituents is a pronoun in which case it is doubly marked both by word order and by case inflection where the subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjective case form and the object pronoun follows the verb and takes the objective case form 295 the example below demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where both object and subject are represented with a third person singular masculine pronoun s v o he hit him indirect objects io of ditransitive verbs can be placed either as the first object in a double object construction s v io o such as i gave jane the book or in a prepositional phrase such as i gave the book to jane 296 clause syntax main article english clause syntax english sentences may be composed of one or more clauses that may in turn be composed of one or more phrases e g noun phrases verb phrases prepositional phrases a clause is built around a verb and includes its constituents such as any noun or prepositional phrases within a sentence there is always at least one main clause or matrix clause whereas other clauses are subordinate to a main clause subordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb in the main clause for example in the phrase i think that you are lying the main clause is headed by the verb think the subject is i but the object of the phrase is the subordinate clause that you are lying the subordinating conjunction that shows that the clause that follows is a subordinate clause but it is often omitted 297 relative clauses are clauses that function as a modifier or specifier to some constituent in the main clause for example in the sentence i saw the letter that you received today the relative clause that you received today specifies the meaning of the word letter the object of the main clause relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns who whose whom and which as well as by that which can also be omitted 298 in contrast to many other germanic languages there are no major differences between word order in main and subordinate clauses 299 auxiliary verb constructions english auxiliary verbs are relied upon for many functions including the expression of tense aspect and mood auxiliary verbs form main clauses and the main verbs function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary verb for example in the sentence the dog did not find its bone the clause find its bone is the complement of the negated verb did not subject auxiliary inversion is used in many constructions including focus negation and interrogative constructions 300 the verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in simple declarative sentences where it usually serves to add emphasis as in i did shut the fridge however in the negated and inverted clauses referred to above it is used because the rules of english syntax permit these constructions only when an auxiliary is present modern english does not allow the addition of the negating adverb not to an ordinary finite lexical verb as in i know not it can only be added to an auxiliary or copular verb hence if there is no other auxiliary present when negation is required the auxiliary do is used to produce a form like i do not don t know the same applies in clauses requiring inversion including most questions inversion must involve the subject and an auxiliary verb so it is not possible to say know you him grammatical rules require do you know him 301 negation is done with the adverb not which precedes the main verb and follows an auxiliary verb a contracted form of not n t can be used as an enclitic attaching to auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be just as with questions many negative constructions require the negation to occur with do support thus in modern english i don t know him is the correct answer to the question do you know him but not i know him not although this construction may be found in older english 302 passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs a passive construction rephrases an active construction in such a way that the object of the active phrase becomes the subject of the passive phrase and the subject of the active phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique argument introduced in a prepositional phrase they are formed by using the past participle either with the auxiliary verb to be or to get although not all varieties of english allow the use of passives with get for example putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes he is seen by her or he gets seen by her 303 questions both yes no questions and wh questions in english are mostly formed using subject auxiliary inversion am i going tomorrow where can we eat which may require do support do you like her where did he go in most cases interrogative words or wh words which include who what when where why and how appear in a fronted position for example in the question what did you see the word what appears as the first constituent despite being the grammatical object of the sentence when the wh word is the subject or forms part of the subject no inversion occurs e g who saw the cat prepositional phrases can also be fronted when they are the questions theme e g to whose house did you go last night the personal interrogative pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun to still show inflection for case with the variant whom serving as the objective case form although this form may be going out of use in many contexts 304 discourse level syntax while english is a subject prominent language at the discourse level it tends to use a topic comment structure where the known information topic precedes the new information comment because of the strict svo syntax the topic of a sentence generally has to be the grammatical subject of the sentence in cases where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sentence it is often promoted to subject position through syntactic means one way of doing this is through a passive construction the girl was stung by the bee another way is through a cleft sentence where the main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a copula sentence with a dummy subject such as it or there e g it was the girl that the bee stung there was a girl who was stung by a bee 305 dummy subjects are also used in constructions where there is no grammatical subject such as with impersonal verbs e g it is raining or in existential clauses there are many cars on the street through the use of these complex sentence constructions with informationally vacuous subjects english is able to maintain both a topic comment sentence structure and a svo syntax 306 focus constructions emphasise a particular piece of new or salient information within a sentence generally through allocating the main sentence level stress on the focal constituent for example the girl was stung by a bee emphasising it was a bee and not for example a wasp that stung her or the girl was stung by a bee contrasting with another possibility for example that it was the boy 307 topic and focus can also be established through syntactic dislocation either preposing or postposing the item to be focused on relative to the main clause for example that girl over there she was stung by a bee emphasises the girl by preposition but a similar effect could be achieved by postposition she was stung by a bee that girl over there where reference to the girl is established as an afterthought 308 cohesion between sentences is achieved through the use of deictic pronouns as anaphora e g that is exactly what i mean where that refers to some fact known to both interlocutors or then used to locate the time of a narrated event relative to the time of a previously narrated event 309 discourse markers such as oh so or well also signal the progression of ideas between sentences and help to create cohesion discourse markers are often the first constituents in sentences discourse markers are also used for stance taking in which speakers position themselves in a specific attitude towards what is being said for example no way is that true the idiomatic marker no way expressing disbelief or boy i m hungry the marker boy expressing emphasis while discourse markers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken registers of english they are also used in written and formal registers 310 vocabulary the english lexicon consists of around 170 000 words or 220 000 if counting obsolete words according to an estimate based on the 1989 edition of the oxford english dictionary 311 over one half are nouns one quarter are adjectives and one seventh are verbs another estimate which includes scientific jargon prefixed and suffixed words loanwords of extremely limited use technical acronyms etc counts around 1 million total english words 312 english borrows vocabulary quickly from many languages and other sources early studies of english vocabulary by lexicographers scholars who study vocabulary and compile dictionaries were impeded by a lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use from high quality linguistic corpora 313 collections of actual written texts and spoken passages many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of english vocabulary over time the dates of first use of various words in english and the sources of english vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analyses of linguistic corpus data become available 314 315 word formation processes english forms new words from existing words or roots in its vocabulary through a variety of processes one of the most productive processes in english is conversion 316 using a word with a different grammatical role for example using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun another productive word formation process is nominal compounding 312 315 producing compound words such as babysitter or ice cream or homesick 316 formation of new words called neologisms based on greek or latin roots for example television or optometry is a highly productive process in modern european languages like english so much so that it is often difficult to determine in which language a neologism originated for this reason american lexicographer philip gove attributed many such words to the international scientific vocabulary isv when compiling webster s third new international dictionary 1961 another active word formation process in english is that of acronyms which result from pronouncing abbreviations of longer phrases as single words e g nato laser scuba 317 word origins further information foreign language influences in english and lists of english words by country or language of origin see also linguistic purism in english english lexicon by source language 9 318 french including anglo norman 28 3 latin including scientific and technical loans 28 2 germanic old english old norse dutch 25 0 greek 5 32 none given 4 03 derived from proper names 3 28 other 5 83 throughout its history english has been a particularly frequent borrower of loanwords from other languages 319 west germanic words in use since the anglo saxon period still comprise most of the language s core vocabulary as well as most of its most frequently used words 320 321 312 many sentences can be constructed without loanwords but not without core anglo saxon vocabulary 322 english has formal and informal speech registers informal registers including child directed speech tend to be made up predominantly of anglo saxon vocabulary while latinate vocabulary appears more frequently in legal scientific and academic writing 323 324 prolonged and intense contact with french has resulted in english having a very high proportion of latinate words...
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