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e region at the expense of declining safavid iran the russian victory ratified for iran s cession of their territories in the northern southern caucasus and contemporary mainland northern iran comprising the cities of derbent southern dagestan and baku and their nearby surrounding lands as well as the provinces of gilan shirvan mazandaran and astrabad to russia per the treaty of saint petersburg 1723 7 the east edit balochi raids edit the most exposed part of iran s frontier was located in the extensive arid lands to the east the area was populated by tribes that neither the safavids nor the mughals were ever successful in pacifying 8 in 1699 the kerman province was overwhelmed by a balochi invasion 1 in response soltan hoseyn appointed the georgian prince gorgin khan george xi as beglerbeg governor of kerman the latter had previously served as the vali viceroy of georgia but had been dismissed in 1688 for helping rebel forces against the safavid governor of kakheti 9 brave and strong willed during warfare gorgin khan preferred to use as the solution to any problem 10 with the help of his brother shahqoli khan levan he routed the numerically superior balochis in various encounters in 1703 as a result of incursions by the afghans soltan hoseyn appointed gorgin khan as the sepahsalar commander in chief and governor of qandahar as well as the vali of georgia 9 gorgin khan s governorship of qandahar edit at qandahar gorgin khan soon competed against mirwais hotak a chief of the hotaki clan of the afghan ghilzai tribe who also served as the kalantar mayor of the city 11 an affluent man from prominent family mirwais was charitable towards his supporters and the poor 12 he had been under service of the safavids for a long time serving as the qafilah salar whose function was to patrol the caravan passage between iran and india 13 however he was dismissed as qafilah salar in 1706 apparently due to his poor service and negligence of his responsibility in collecting fees and taxes 1 14 meanwhile the afghan relations with gorgin khan had become uneasy due to his oppressive rule 14 most sources agree that his rule started to become oppressive quickly after his assumption of power in qandahar 9 the nominally shi i georgian soldiers of gorgin khan concealed goods seized afghan girls and women and increased taxes they also disregarded the religious freedom that the sunni afghans had been guaranteed as a condition for accepting safavid rule they were said to have defiled sunni mosques by bringing pigs and wine inside as well as taking advantage of underaged girls and 9 10 year old boys with some of them ending up being killed and their corpses thrown in front of their parents homes 14 the afghans aggrieved by this treatment sent complaints to isfahan but they were seized by gorgin khan s men at the court and thus never reached soltan hoseyn 14 mirwais planned to rebel against the georgians but was soon arrested and brought to isfahan under the orders of gorgin khan who was suspicious of him 15 the latter urged soltan hoseyn to eliminate him or at least prohibit him from going back to qandahar 16 during his stay at isfahan mirwais observed the fragility of the iranian regime as well as the possibility to benefit from the factional strife there 17 through proficient flattery and bribery he successfully reintegrated himself he persuaded soltan hoseyn that gorgin khan was not trustworthy as he planned to make his rule in qandahar autonomous and also planned a russo georgian alliance against iran 16 the rebellion of mirwais edit mirwais was given permission to go on a pilgrimage to mecca where he convinced the religious authorities to declare a fatwa that gave the afghans the right to become independent of iranian control in 1708 he was sent back to qandahar as a shadow administrator where he launched a massive rebellion in april 1709 the afghans made a surprise attack against gorgin khan and his retinue killing them in their tents they subsequently took control over qandahar and massacred its georgian garrison the news of these developments did not motivate the government to take action soltan hoseyn instead sent two emissaries in a row to protest but they were both jailed 12 soltan hoseyn then responded by selecting gorgen khan s nephew khosrow khan kay khosrow as the commander of the afghan expedition 16 the latter had previously served as the darugha prefect of isfahan 18 and following gorgin khan s death became the new sepahsalar and vali of georgia 11 khosrow khan struggled to prepare the expedition as he was given an insufficient amount of 7 000 to pay for 3 000 soldiers the grand vizier as well as members of the anti georgian court faction greatly hindered the release of funds for the expedition khosrow khan instead found reassurance through military support by the herat based afghan abdali tribe the adversaries of the ghilzai 16 after two years of warfare with the ghilzai khosrow khan finally besieged qandahar with abdali assistance two months later the ghilzai appealed for peace however after being demanded of total surrender to the iranian forces they continued fighting in october 1711 khosrow khan and his exhausted soldiers were forced to withdraw due to the summer heat illness shortage of supplies and attacks by the baluchi who had joined the afghans khosrow khan and many of his troops were killed by the pursuing afghan soldiers who took their military equipment 16 in late 1712 the qorchibashi head of the mounted cavalry or royal guards 19 mohammad zaman khan was entrusted with the task of attacking the afghans whilst assembling an army en route however the lack of funds greatly hindered his expedition rather than using money from his own treasury soltan hoseyn forced the merchants in isfahan and new jolfa to give a combined amount of 14 000 tomans the expedition eventually fell apart when zaman khan died near herat in the spring of 1712 20 he was succeeded by mansur khan shahsevan whose expedition also ended in failure he left isfahan in september 1713 with fifty troops and more or less without any funds meanwhile sultan husayn had forced his courtiers to lend him money to construct a new maydan town square in farahabad during the summer of 1713 500 soldiers were marching towards the east with no funds and horses and equipped with sticks mahd ali khan who governed farah was unable to march towards with his 1 500 soldiers towards mirwais due to lack of funds many of his soldiers had deserted and made the countryside dangerous causing the locals more trouble than the afghans meanwhile the local militia of marv had revolted due to the lack of pay and a force of 8 000 turkmens were marching towards mashhad 20 the afghan capture of isfahan edit view of isfahan illustrated by cornelis de bruijn in 1703 3 following the death of mirwais in 1715 the iranians failed in their efforts to appease the afghans through compromises as mirwais s son and later successor mahmud hotak r 1717 1725 swore to get his revenge against the iranians the afghans advanced into the heartland of iran in 1720 conquering kerman six months later they chose to withdraw but came back the next year causing chaos in the southeast and eastern part of the country nevertheless soltan hosayn continued to use the majority of his time and funds on construction projects 1 mahmud and his army swept westward aiming at the shah s capital of isfahan itself rather than biding his time within the city and resisting a siege in which the small afghan army was unlikely to succeed soltan hoseyn marched out to meet mahmud s force at golnabad 21 here on 8 march the royal army was thoroughly routed and fled back to isfahan in disarray 22 the shah was urged to escape to the provinces to raise more troops but he decided to remain in the capital which was now encircled by the afghans 23 mahmud s siege of isfahan lasted from march to october 1722 lacking artillery he was forced to resort to a long blockade in the hope of starving the iranians into submission 24 soltan hoseyn s command during the siege displayed his customary lack of decisiveness and the loyalty of his provincial governors wavered in the face of such incompetence 25 protests against his rule also broke out within isfahan and the shah s son tahmasp was eventually elevated to the role of co ruler in june tahmasp managed to escape from the city in a bid to raise a relief force in the provinces but little came of this plan 26 starvation and disease finally forced isfahan into submission it is believed that over 80 000 of the inhabitants of the city died during the siege on 23 october soltan hoseyn abdicated and acknowledged mahmud as the new shah of iran 27 captivity and death edit mahmud initially treated soltan hoseyn considerately but as he gradually became mentally unbalanced he began to view the former shah with suspicion 28 in february 1725 believing a rumour that one of soltan hoseyn s sons safi mirza had escaped mahmud ordered the execution of all the other safavid princes who were in his hands with the exception of soltan hoseyn himself when soltan hoseyn tried to stop the massacre he was wounded but his action saved the lives of two of his young children mahmud succumbed to insanity and died on 25 april of the same year 29 mahmud s successor ashraf khan at first treated the deposed shah with sympathy in return soltan hoseyn gave him the hand of one of his daughters in marriage a move which would have increased ashraf s legitimacy in the eyes of his iranian subjects however ashraf was involved in a war with the ottoman empire which contested his claim to the iranian throne in the autumn of 1726 the ottoman governor of baghdad ahmad pasha advanced with his army on isfahan sending an insulting message to ashraf saying that he was coming to restore the legitimate shah to the throne in response ashraf had soltan hoseyn s head cut off and sent it to the ottoman with the message that he expected to give ahmad pasha a fuller reply with the points of his sword and his lance as the iranologist michael axworthy comments in this way shah soltan hoseyn gave in death a sharper answer than he ever gave in life 30 government policies edit religious policy edit a decree farman issued by soltan hoseyn dated march april 1713 14 soltan hoseyn s religiosity is implied through the numerous awqaf charitable endowment under islamic law he gifted he may not have been as intolerant as he commonly is described as implied by his trust in the sunni grand vizier fath ali khan daghestani his interest when visiting to the churches of new jolfa as well as the numerous decrees farman he declared which protected the christian population of iran and allowed missionaries to perform their work soltan hoseyn s reign marked an improvement over his father s regarding the status of european missionaries 1 the clerics who held influence over soltan hoseyn were permitted to pursue their dogmatic plans such as their anti sufi policies and taking action against non shi ites these actions included the forced conversion of zoroastrians turning their temple in isfahan into a mosque exacting jizya poll tax from jews and christians and making it illegal for non shi ites to go outside during rain for fear that they might pollute shi ites in most cases these laws were avoided through bribery or in other occasions through other means such as when maryam begum interceded on the behalf of the armenians of new jolfa 1 nevertheless the progressively intolerant environment caused by these measures decreased the loyalty of the non shi ites towards the safavid government due to increased taxes and endangerment by a law that permitted the family member of an apostate to gain their belongings several wealthy armenians withdrew much of their financial assets and left for the italian cities of venice and rome the anti sunni policies pursued by the government had the most substantial consequences as it alienated the many sunnis of the country most of whom inhabited its frontiers 1 soltan hoseyn also had the tawhid khana sufi assemblies closed 1 foreign policy edit while less involved with the outside world than his predecessors soltan hoseyn was more engaged in foreign policy than that of his father he continued the latter s policy of preserving peaceful relations with the ottoman empire 1 government and administrative policies edit double portrait of a royal bodyguard on the right and a musketeer on the left made in isfahan dated 1684 85 during the reign of soltan hoseyn the structure of the government remained unchanged continuing the same multi constitutional foundations turk tajik b gholam that had existed earlier soltan hoseyn s first grand vizier was the tajik sayyid mohammad taher vahid qazvini 32 who had held the office since 1691 during the reign of shah soleyman 33 mohammad taher vahid as well to a lesser degree the court steward nazer najafqoli khan were the main counselors of soltan hoseyn during his early reign 1 in may 1699 soltan hoseyn dismissed mohammad taher vahid supposedly due to the latter s old age he replaced him with the eshik aqasi bashi mohammad mo men khan shamlu who however was also advanced in age 34 he was in turn replaced in 1707 by shahqoli khan zanganeh son of the sunni kurd shaykh ali khan zanganeh who had also previously served as grand vizier 32 he was succeeded in 1715 by the sunni fath ali khan daghestani whom soltan hoseyn left most of the state affairs to 1 32 the french consul ange garde considered fath ali khan daghestani to be the absolute ruler of the realm who takes care of everything while the king has not the slightest knowledge of what goes on in the country 35 he was succeeded in 1720 by mohammad mo men khan shamlu s son mohammad qoli khan shamlu who remained grand vizier until the fall of isfahan 32 36 the high clerics were notably favoured and regarded by soltan hoseyn particularly maljesi whom he often consulted and entrusted to write texts about religious subjects following majlesi s death in 1699 soltan hoseyn s former tutor khatunabadi succeeded him in that regard 1 the latter was given the most powerful religious office of the country the mullabashi an office first created by soltan hoseyn 37 the courts eunuchs also uninterruptedly increased their influence such as in 1696 when the head of the black eunuchs agha kamal was the most praised subject of soltan hoseyn by 1714 it was the eunuchs who decided who was promoted appointed or discharged during soltan hoseyn s late reign the most prominent influence was exercised by maryam begum 1 there were many who held the post of sepahsalar under soltan hoseyn primarily members of the shamlu and the zanganeh tribes the post of qorchibashi head of the mounted cavalry or royal guards continued to be held by tribal groups also primarily the shamlu and zanganeh 38 the post of qollar aghasi chief of the gholams 39 was held by officers of tribal and georgian gholam origin 32 the post ...
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