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ine 3 professor levan chilashvili s dating of fragmented asomtavruli inscriptions discovered by him at the ruined town of nekresi in georgia s easternmost province of kakheti in the 1980s to the 2nd or 1st century bc 10 11 has not been accepted 12 a georgian tradition first attested in the medieval chronicle lives of the kings of kartli c 800 3 assigns a much earlier pre christian origin to the georgian alphabet and names king pharnavaz i 3rd century bc as its inventor this account is now considered legendary and is rejected by scholarly consensus as no archaeological confirmation has been found 3 13 14 scholars such as tamaz gamkrelidze a potskhishvili and z sarjveladze suggested that the account of pharnavaz s invention of georgian writing system should be understood as the introduction of alloglottography in foreign scripts gamkrelidze argues that pharnavaz introduced writing on the basis of aramaic script the text was synchronically translated from georgian and written down in aramaic by a specialist potskhishvili argues that greek graphics were used instead 15 another point of contention among scholars is the role played by armenian clerics in that process according to medieval armenian sources and a number of scholars mesrop mashtots generally acknowledged as the creator of the armenian alphabet also allegedly created the georgian and caucasian albanian alphabets this tradition originates in the works of koryun a fifth century historian and biographer of mashtots 16 and has been quoted by donald rayfield and james r russell 17 18 but has been rejected by georgian scholarship and some western scholars who judge the passage in koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation 3 in his study on the history of the invention of the armenian alphabet and the life of mashtots the armenian linguist hrachia acharian strongly defended koryun as a reliable source and rejected criticisms of his accounts on the invention of the georgian script by mashtots 19 acharian dated the invention to 408 four years after mashtots created the armenian alphabet he dated the latter event to 404 20 some western scholars quote koryun s claims without taking a stance on its validity 21 22 or concede that armenian clerics if not mashtots himself must have played a role in the creation of the georgian script 3 14 23 ivane javakhishvili a georgian historian and scientist studied this work of koryun and concluded that the version of mesrop mashtots creation of the georgian alphabet is a vi vii century addition the 5th century armenian historian ghazar parpetsi considers mashtots to be the creator of only the armenian alphabet 24 tamaz gamkrelidze argues that a thorough linguistic analysis would have been necessary to create a new writing system for the language while mesrop mashtots did not know the georgian language 25 another controversy regards the main influences at play in the georgian alphabet as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the greek alphabet 26 or by semitic alphabets such as aramaic 27 recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the greek alphabet than in the other caucasian writing systems most notably the order and numeric value of letters 2 3 some scholars have also suggested certain pre christian georgian cultural symbols or clan markers as a possible inspiration for particular letters 28 asomtavruli edit anbandidi gospel in asomtavruli 9th century asomtavruli georgian ასომთავრული ⴀⴑⴍⴋⴇⴀⴅⴐⴓⴊⴈ asomtʰavɾuli is the oldest georgian script the name asomtavruli means capital letters from aso ასო letter and mtavari მთავარი principal head it is also known as mrgvlovani georgian მრგვლოვანი rounded from mrgvali მრგვალი round so named because of its round letter shapes despite its name this capital script is unicameral 29 the oldest asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century 30 and are bir el qutt 31 and the bolnisi inscriptions 32 from the 9th century nuskhuri script started becoming dominant and the role of asomtavruli was reduced however epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in asomtavruli script asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative in the majority of 9th century georgian manuscripts which were written in nuskhuri script asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters 33 however some manuscripts written completely in asomtavruli can be found until the 11th century 34 form of asomtavruli letters edit in early asomtavruli the letters are of equal height georgian historian and philologist pavle ingorokva believes that the direction of asomtavruli like that of greek was initially boustrophedon though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right 35 in most asomtavruli letters straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles the only letter with acute angles is ⴟ jani there have been various attempts to explain this exception georgian linguist and art historian helen machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of christ composed of ⴈ ini and ⴕ kani 36 according to georgian scholar ramaz pataridze the cross like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet and has the same function as the similarly shaped phoenician letter taw greek chi χ and latin x 37 though these letters do not have that function in phoenician greek or latin coins of queen tamar of georgia and king george iv of georgia minted using asomtavruli script 1200 1210 ad from the 7th century the forms of some letters began to change the equal height of the letters was abandoned with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders 38 39 asomtavruli letters ⴀ ani ⴁ bani ⴂ gani ⴃ doni ⴄ eni ⴅ vini ⴆ zeni ⴡ he ⴇ tani ⴈ ini ⴉ kʼani ⴊ lasi ⴋ mani ⴌ nari ⴢ hie ⴍ oni ⴎ pʼari ⴏ zhani ⴐ rae ⴑ sani ⴒ tʼari ⴣ vie ⴓ ⴍⴣ uni ⴔ pari ⴕ kani ⴖ ghani ⴗ qʼari ⴘ shini ⴙ chini ⴚ tsani ⴛ dzili ⴜ ts ili ⴝ ch ari ⴞ khani ⴤ qari ⴟ jani ⴠ hae ⴥ hoe asomtavruli illumination edit in nuskhuri manuscripts asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals the latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text in the early stages of the development of nuskhuri texts asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink later from the 10th century the letters were illuminated the style of asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text for example in the georgian manuscripts of the byzantine era when the styles of the byzantine empire influenced kingdom of georgia capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals 40 decorative asomtavruli capital letters ⴋ m and ⴇ t 12 13th century from the 11th century limb flowery limb arrowy and limb spotty decorative forms of asomtavruli are developed the first two are found in 11th and 12th century monuments whereas the third one is used until the 18th century 41 42 importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself 43 asomtavruli letter ⴃ doni is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds 44 the curly decorative form of asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other or the smaller letters are written inside other letters it was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books although there are complete inscriptions which were written in the asomtavruli curly form only 45 the title of gospel of matthew in asomtavruli curly decorative form handwriting of asomtavruli edit the following table shows the stroke direction of each asomtavruli letter 46 nuskhuri edit nuskhuri of john tornike collection of the monastery of iviron 10th century nuskhuri georgian ნუსხური ⴌⴓⴑⴞⴓⴐⴈ nusχuɾi is the second georgian script the name nuskhuri comes from nuskha ნუსხა meaning inventory or schedule nuskhuri was soon augmented with asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts the combination is called khutsuri georgian ხუცური ⴞⴓⴚⴓⴐⴈ clerical from khutsesi ხუცესი cleric and it was principally used in hagiography 47 nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of asomtavruli 8 the oldest inscription is found in the ateni sioni church and dates to 835 ad 48 the oldest surviving nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 ad 49 nuskhuri becomes dominant over asomtavruli from the 10th century 47 form of nuskhuri letters edit nuskhuri letters vary in height with ascenders and descenders and are slanted to the right letters have an angular shape with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in asomtavruli this enabled faster writing of manuscripts 50 asomtavruli letters ⴍ oni and ⴣ vie a ligature of these letters produced a new letter in nuskhuri ⴓ uni a colophon of king david iv in nuskhuri nuskhuri letters ⴀ ani ⴁ bani ⴂ gani ⴃ doni ⴄ eni ⴅ vini ⴆ zeni ⴡ he ⴇ tani ⴈ ini ⴉ kʼani ⴊ lasi ⴋ mani ⴌ nari ⴢ hie ⴍ oni ⴎ pʼari ⴏ zhani ⴐ rae ⴑ sani ⴒ tʼari ⴣ vie ⴓ ⴍⴣ uni ⴔ pari ⴕ kani ⴖ ghani ⴗ qʼari ⴘ shini ⴙ chini ⴚ tsani ⴛ dzili ⴜ tsʼili ⴝ chʼari ⴞ khani ⴤ qari ⴟ jani ⴠ hae ⴥ hoe note without proper font support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of nuskhuri letters handwriting of nuskhuri edit the following table shows the stroke direction of each nuskhuri letter 51 use of asomtavruli and nuskhuri today edit asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography murals and exterior design especially in stone engravings 52 georgian linguist akaki shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce asomtavruli into the mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences as in the latin script but it did not catch on 53 asomtavruli and nuskhuri are officially used by the georgian orthodox church alongside mkhedruli patriarch ilia ii of georgia called on people to use all three georgian scripts 54 mkhedruli edit royal charter of king bagrat iv in mkhedruli 11th century royal charter of queen tamar of georgia in mkhedruli 1202 ad royal charter of king vakhtang vi in mkhedruli 1725 ad mkhedruli georgian მხედრული mχedɾuli is the third and current georgian script mkhedruli literally meaning cavalry or military derives from mkhedari მხედარი meaning horseman knight warrior 55 and cavalier 56 mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century the oldest mkhedruli inscription is found in ateni sioni church dating back to 982 ad the second oldest mkhedruli written text is found in the 11th century royal charters of king bagrat iv of georgia mkhedruli was mostly used then in the kingdom of georgia for the royal charters historical documents manuscripts and inscriptions 57 mkhedruli was used for non religious purposes only and represented the civil royal and secular script 58 59 mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts though khutsuri nuskhuri with asomtavruli was used until the 19th century mkhedruli became the universal writing georgian system outside of the church in the 19th century with the establishment and development of printed georgian fonts 60 mkhedruli is potentially a bicameral script with capital letters that are called mkhedruli mtavruli მხედრული მთავრული or simply mtavruli მთავრული georgian pronunciation mtʰavɾuli nowadays mkhedruli mtavruli is only used in all caps text in titles or to emphasize a word though in the late 19th and early 20th centuries it was occasionally used as in latin and cyrillic scripts to capitalize proper nouns or the first word of a sentence contemporary georgian script does not recognize capital letters and their usage has become decorative 61 form of mkhedruli letters edit mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters mkhedruli letters are written in the four linear system similar to nuskhuri mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing it breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets asomtavruli and nuskhuri mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops 62 example of one of the oldest mkhedruli written texts found in the royal charter of king bagrat iv of georgia 11th century gurgen king of kings great grandfather of mine bagrat curopalates coin of queen tamar of georgia in mkhedruli 1187 ad modern georgian alphabet edit the modern georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters ა ani ბ bani გ gani დ doni ე eni ვ vini ზ zeni თ tani ი ini კ k ani ლ lasi მ mani ნ nari ო oni პ p ari ჟ zhani რ rae ს sani ტ t ari უ uni ფ pari ქ kani ღ ghani ყ q ari შ shini ჩ chini ც tsani ძ dzili წ ts ili ჭ ch ari ხ khani ჯ jani ჰ hae letters removed from the georgian alphabet edit the society for the spreading of literacy among georgians founded by prince ilia chavchavadze in 1879 discarded five letters from the georgian alphabet that had become redundant 29 ჱ e merve ჲ iota ჳ vie ჴ khari ჵ hoe ჱ georgian ე მერვე romanized e merve 63 eighth e e̞j roughly like the ay in p ay svan eː like the e in egg in some american and canadian accents sometimes called ei 64 was equivalent to ეჲ ey as in ქრისტჱ ქრისტეჲ kristʼey christ ჲ georgian იოტა romanized iot a 63 j like the word yeah appeared for the sound j after a vowel დედაჲ deday mother რაჲ 65 ray what but was dropped from the pronunciation and abolished from the spelling thus ქრისტჱ ქრისტეჲ kristʼey christ is now written ქრისტე kristʼe ჳ georgian ვიე romanized vie wi vi like a cluster of the oo in too and the i in ill svan w like the w in water 63 came to be pronounced the same as ვი vi and was replaced by that sequence as in სხჳსი სხვისი skhvisi others ჴ georgian ხარი ჴარი romanized khari ẖari 66 qari hari q ʰ like the arabic qof 63 came to be pronounced the same as ხ khani and was replaced by it e g ჴელმწიფე qelmtsʼipe became ხელმწიფე khelmtsʼipe sovereign ჵ georgian ჰოე romanized hoe oː somewhat like the american o in go 63 was used for the interjection hoi and is now spelled ჰოი also used in bats for the ʕ or ɦ sound all but ჵ hoe continue to be used in the svan alphabet ჲ hie is used in the mingrelian and laz alphabets as well for the y sound j several others were used for abkhaz and ossetian in the short time they were written in mkhedruli script letters added to other alphabets edit mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides georgian some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in georgian while others acquired additional letters ჶ fi ჷ shva ჸ elifi ჹ turned gani ჺ aini ჼ modifier letter nar ჽ aen ჾ hard sign ჿ labial sign ჶ fi phi is used in laz and svan and formerly in ossetian and abkhazian 1 it derives from the greek letter φ phi ჷ shva schwa also called yn is used for the schwa sound in svan and mingrelian and formerly in ossetian and abkhazian 1 ჸ elifi alif is used in for the glottal stop in svan and mingrelian as well as in the tushetian dialect of georgian 1 it is a reversed ყ q ari ჹ turned gani was once used for ɢ in evangelical literature in dagestanian languages 1 ჼ modifier nar is used in bats i...
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