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nalized form includes prehistoric 224 225 and early modern europe 179 south america 226 mesoamerica 227 iroquoian peoples in north america 228 parts of western and central africa 24 china 229 230 and sumatra 24 among pre contact aboriginal australians 231 among māori in new zealand 232 on some other polynesian islands 24 as well as in new guinea 21 the solomon islands 233 and fiji 234 evidence of cannibalism has also been found in ruins associated with the ancestral puebloans at cowboy wash in the southwestern united states 235 236 237 after world war i institutionalized cannibalism has become very rare but cases were still reported during times of famine occasional cannibal acts committed by individual criminals also are documented throughout the 20th and 21st centuries the americas this section is an excerpt from cannibalism in the americas edit a scene depicting ritualistic aztec cannibalism being practiced in the codex magliabechiano folio 73r the history and scope of cannibalism in the americas is complex involving ritual or cultural practices connected with human sacrifice and warfare as well as instances motivated by famine and criminal cases the modern term cannibal is derived from the name of the island caribs kalinago who were encountered by christopher columbus in the bahamas while numerous cultures in the americas were reported by european explorers and colonizers to have engaged in cannibalism some of these claims may be unreliable since the spanish empire used them to justify conquest 238 at least some cultures have been archeologically proven beyond any doubt to have undertaken institutionalized cannibalism this includes human bones uncovered in a cave hamlet confirming accounts of the xiximes undertaking ritualized raids as part of their agricultural cycle after every harvest also proven are the aztec ritual ceremonies during the spanish conquest at tecoaque the anasazi in the 12th century have also been demonstrated to have undertaken cannibalism possibly due to drought as shown by proteins from human flesh found in recovered feces there is near universal agreement that some mesoamericans practiced human sacrifice and cannibalism but there is no scholarly consensus as to its extent anthropologist marvin harris author of cannibals and kings has suggested that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward since the aztec diet was lacking in proteins according to harris the aztec economy would not support feeding enslaved people the captured in war and the columns of prisoners were marching meat 239 conversely bernard r ortiz de montellano has proposed that aztec cannibalism coincided with harvest times and should be considered more of a thanksgiving montellano rejects the theories of harner and harris saying that with evidence of so many tributes and intensive chinampa agriculture the aztecs did not need any other food sources 240 william arens 1979 book the man eating myth claimed that there is no firm substantiable evidence for the socially accepted practice of cannibalism anywhere in the world at any time in history but his views have been largely rejected as irreconcilable with the actual evidence 241 242 in later times cannibalism has occasionally been practiced as a last resort by people suffering from famine well known examples include the ill fated donner party 1846 1847 and the crash of uruguayan air force flight 571 1972 after which the survivors ate the bodies of the dead additionally there are cases of people engaging in cannibalism for sexual pleasure such as albert fish and jeffrey dahmer africa this section is an excerpt from cannibalism in africa edit sale of human flesh in the late 16th century engraving by theodor de bry illustrating filippo pigafetta s report of the kingdom of congo which contains the oldest known account of cannibalism in central africa 243 acts of cannibalism in africa have been reported from various parts of the continent ranging from prehistory until the 21st century the oldest firm evidence of archaic humans consuming each other dates to 1 45 million years ago in kenya archaeological evidence for human cannibalism exists later among anatomically modern humans but its frequency remains unknown later in east africa the ugandan dictator idi amin was reputed to practise cannibalism and acts of voluntary and forced cannibalism have been reported from the south sudanese civil war while the oldest known written mention of cannibalism is from the tomb of the egyptian king unas later evidence from egypt shows it to only re appear during occasional episodes of severe famine reports describing cannibal practices were most often recorded by outsiders and were especially during the colonialist epoch commonly used to justify the subjugation and exploitation of non european peoples in africa and elsewhere therefore such sources need to be particularly critically examined before being accepted there is nevertheless good evidence of cannibal customs once existing in certain contexts in some african regions as well as in other parts of the world including europe the idea of a universal taboo against cannibalism implicitly or explicitly used by some authors to reject any such evidence has been criticized as ethnocentric by others since it takes a notion from the modern western world and declares it to be universal the oldest records of cannibalism in west africa are from muslim authors who visited the region in the 14th century later accounts often ascribe it to secret societies such as the leopard society cannibal practices were also reported among various nigerian peoples the victims were usually killed or captured enemies kidnapped strangers and purchased slaves cannibalism was practised to express hatred and to humiliate one s enemies as well as to avoid waste and because meat in general was rare human flesh was also considered tastier than that of animals while its consumption during peacetime seems to have ceased cannibal acts are on record for civil wars in liberia and sierra leone around the turn from the 20th to the 21st century in the late 19th century cannibalism seems to have been especially prevalent in parts of the congo basin while some groups rejected the custom others indulged in human flesh often considering it superior to other meats killed or captured enemies could be consumed and individuals from different ethnic groups were sometimes hunted down for the same purpose enslaved people were also sacrificed for the table especially young children who were otherwise in little demand but praised as particularly delicious in some areas human flesh and slaves intended for eating were sold at marketplaces while cannibalism became rarer under the colonial congo free state and its belgium run successor colonial authorities seem to have done little to suppress the practice human flesh still appeared on the tables up to the 1950s and was eaten and sold during the congo crisis in the 1960s occasional reports of cannibalism during violent conflicts continue into the 21st century cannibalism was also reported from north of the congo basin extending up to the central african republic civil war which started in 2012 jean bédel bokassa dictator of the central african republic seems to have eaten the flesh of opponents and prisoners in the 1970s in the 19th century cannibalism was also practised in the southern african zulu kingdom and adjacent areas during times of famine and social disruption particularly during a violent period that became known as mfecane europe this section is an excerpt from cannibalism in europe edit cannibalism in lithuania during the livonian war in 1571 german plate acts of cannibalism in europe seem to have been relatively prevalent in prehistory but also occurred repeatedly in later times often motivated by hunger hatred or medical concerns both anatomically modern humans and neanderthals practised cannibalism to some extent in the pleistocene 244 245 246 247 and neanderthals may have been eaten by modern humans as the latter spread into europe 248 amongst humans in prehistoric europe archaeologists have uncovered many clear and indisputable sites of cannibalism as well as numerous other finds of which cannibalism is a plausible interpretation in antiquity several greek and roman authors mentioned cannibal customs in remote parts of the continent such as beyond the dnieper river and in britain the stoic philosopher chrysippus noted that burial customs varied widely with funerary cannibalism being practised by many peoples though rejected by the greeks several cases of survival cannibalism during sieges are on record cannibalism to stave off starvation was also practised in later times such as during the great famine of 1315 1317 in the early modern and colonial era shipwrecked sailors ate the bodies of the deceased or drew lots to decide who would have to die to provide food for the others in cases of cannibalism at sea during the first crusade some crusaders ate the bodies of killed enemies with the reasons for these acts hunger or intimidation being a matter of debate various cases of undoubtedly revenge driven cannibalism took place in early modern italy in 1672 the dutch statesman johan de witt and his brother were lynched and partially eaten by an angry mob in early modern europe the consumption of body parts and blood for medical purposes became popular reaching its height during the 17th century this practice continued in some cases into the second half of the 19th century 249 the first half of the 20th century saw a resurgence of acts of survival cannibalism in eastern europe especially during the russian famine of 1921 1922 the soviet famine of 1930 1933 and the siege of leningrad several serial killers among them karl denke and andrei chikatilo consumed parts of their victims a few other people such as reporter william seabrook and artist rick gibson ate human flesh out of curiosity or to shock the public without killing anyone for the purpose at the start of the 21st century armin meiwes became infamous for killing and eating a voluntary victim whom he had found via the internet asia this section is an excerpt from cannibalism in asia edit fanciful depiction of cannibalism in china from a 15th century edition of the travels of marco polo acts of cannibalism in asia have been reported from various parts of the continent ranging from ancient history to the 21st century human cannibalism is particularly well documented for china and for islands that today belong to indonesia the history of cannibalism in china is multifaceted spanning from cases motivated by food scarcity during famines and wars to culturally accepted practices motivated by vengeance medical beliefs and even culinary pleasure records from china s twenty four histories document over three hundred episodes of cannibalism many of them seen as an inevitable means of avoiding starvation cannibalism was also employed as a form of vengeance with individuals and state officials consuming enemies flesh to further humiliate and punish them the histories also document multiple instances of voluntary cannibalism often involving young individuals offering some of their flesh to ill family members as a form of medical treatment various reports especially from early history and the medieval era indicate that human flesh could also be served at lavish feasts and was considered an exotic delicacy by some generally the reports from chinese history suggest that people had fewer reservations about eating human flesh than one might expect today episodes of cannibalism in china continued into the 20th century especially during the great leap forward 1958 1962 famine during the cultural revolution 1966 1976 multiple cases motivated by hatred rather than hunger seem to have occurred in sumatra cannibal practices are documented especially for the 14th and the 19th centuries with purchased children killed or captured enemies and executed criminals mentioned as typical victims in neighbouring borneo some dayak people ate human flesh especially in the context of headhunting expeditions and war campaigns in both islands and also in china human flesh was praised as extraordinarily delicious accounts from the 20th and early 21st centuries indicate that the cannibalization of despised enemies could still occur during episodes of mass violence such as the indonesian mass killings of 1965 66 and more recently the sampit conflict cases of famine cannibalism have been reported from north korea during the mid 1990s and subsequent starvation periods but their prevalence is debated various reports indicate that some japanese soldiers ate human flesh during world war ii motivated by starvation or sometimes by hatred oceania this section is an excerpt from cannibalism in oceania edit a cannibal feast on tanna vanuatu c 1885 1889 cannibalism in oceania is well documented for many parts of this region with reports ranging from the early modern period to in a few cases the 21st century some archaeological evidence has also been found human cannibalism in melanesia and polynesia was primarily associated with war with victors eating the vanquished while in australia it was confined to a minority of aboriginal groups and was mostly associated with mortuary rites or as a contingency for hardship to avoid starvation cannibalism used to be widespread in parts of fiji once nicknamed the cannibal isles 250 among the māori people of new zealand and in the marquesas islands 13 it was also practised in new guinea and in parts of the solomon islands according to some reports cannibalism was still practised in papua new guinea around 2012 for cultural reasons 251 252 see also autocannibalism the practice of eating oneself also called self cannibalism cannibal film cannibalism at sea cannibalism in africa cannibalism in asia cannibalism in europe cannibalism in literature cannibalism in oceania cannibalism in popular culture cannibalism in poultry cannibalism in the americas cannibalization marketing a business strategy child cannibalism for children as victims of cannibalism in myth and reality endocannibalism the consumption of persons from the same community often as a funerary rite exocannibalism the consumption of persons from outside the community often enemies killed or captured in war filial cannibalism the consumption of one s own offspring homo antecessor an extinct human species providing some of the earliest known evidence for human cannibalism human placentophagy the consumption of the placenta afterbirth issei sagawa a japanese man who became a minor celebrity after killing and eating another student list of incidents of cannibalism medical cannibalism the consumption of human body parts to treat or prevent diseases placentophagy the act of mammals eating the placenta of their young after childbirth pleistocene human diet the eating habits of human ancestors in the pleistocene sexual cann...
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