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ed food for the monkeys as a short cut to habituate them making them easier to observe this practice was later discouraged out of concerns that it warps natural behaviors individual identification learning to identify every monkey in a troop as an individual was seen as key to understanding the group s dynamics japanese researchers also identified primate personalities long term studies over many years and multiple generations were considered necessary to understand group dynamics and society the first scientific journal focused on primate research primates was published in japan in 1957 with english translations more japanese studies were translated into english in the 1960s where they eventually found an audience in the west many of their findings regarding dominance hierarchies matrilineal residence the existence of a breeding season provided foundational understandings of primate socialization internationally perhaps the most widely popularized reports of japanese origin were those regarding macaque proto culture in 1954 satsue mito a field assistant noticed that one of the female monkeys washed her sweet potatoes before eating them and that other monkeys in the group were copying the habit this led researchers to explore how learned behaviors spread in populations eventually igniting debates around monkey and ape culture a subject popularized in the u s by frans de waal in the ape and the sushi master 35 25 imanishi and itani went on to co found the primate research institute at kyoto university in 1967 establishing primatology in europe and north america edit in the period after wwii primate researchers in the west drew more heavily upon captive animals than did their colleagues in japan so in the 1950s western primate research could be roughly lumped into two categories lab research and field studies these approaches served wildly different purposes goals and methods scientific journals dedicated specifically to primatology appeared later in the west than in japan folia primatologica launched in 1963 the international journal of primatology in 1980 the american journal of primatology in 1981 and primate conservation in 1981 lab research edit in harry harlow s experiments isolating baby monkeys from their mothers an infant clings to a soft surrogate innovations in captive animal care and breeding enabled new lines of inquiry in the 1950s biomedical researchers saw monkeys and apes as ideal animal models for understanding human disease and now had the resources to advance experimental testing perhaps the most notable medical breakthroughs were the use of rhesus macaques in making the salk polio vaccine 36 and chimpanzees in developing the hepatitis b vaccine 37 silver spring monkey in a restraint chair in 1981 inside the laboratory at the institute of behavioral research maryland 1981 monkeys and apes were seen as models not only for human anatomy but psychology and the 1950s and 1960s saw a proliferation of psychological studies using primates of these arguably harry harlow achieved the most fame and notoriety as the initiator of wire monkey mother surrogate studies 38 his research was widely covered in mainstream media ultimately leading to broad shifts toward more nurturing methods of prenatal pediatric and psychological care in humans 39 harlow s habit of describing his work in gruesome detail came at a cost however it ended up inspiring an organized animal rights movement this period was captured in a series of articles by deborah blum later compiled into the monkey wars blum s research on this controversy received the pulitzer prize in 1992 40 scientific efforts to teach great apes human sign language proved to be more popular with the larger public ape sign language studies had their heyday in the early 1970s before a critical study in science 41 1979 was seen as debunking the research as a result government and foundations cut funding for ape language research 42 the sign language studies ultimately illustrated a problem with experimental psychology more generally working with traumatized animals in human centered unnatural conditions led to skewed results even accusations of pseudoscience 43 44 rather than trying to teach apes human language 21st century explorations of primate communication focused on observing species in their natural habitats in the 21st century many countries have banned or eliminated the use of great apes as biomedical subjects in response to public opposition and efforts such as project r r and great ape project as well as pragmatic concerns however researchers continue to use monkeys as experimental subjects a practice that remains controversial field research edit post wwii prosperity and improvements in international travel opened up new opportunities for westerners to study primates in natural environments in the 1950s r l carpenter resumed research on rhesus macaques that he had translocated to puerto rico studies on baboons in africa proliferated unlike other monkeys baboons live on savannah not in trees and thus were seen as better models of human origins studies on lower arboreal primates lemurs and langurs had a slower start but represented an important development in studying animals for their own sake not just as little furry people 45 46 a sculpture of jane goodall and david greybeard outside the field museum of natural history in chicago paleontologist louis leakey helped organize long term studies of chimpanzees and gorillas in africa with jane goodall and dian fossey in the 1960s this work coincided with the rise of color television and a new vogue for nature documentaries the airing of national geographic s miss goodall and the wild chimpanzees in 1965 thus introduced mass audiences to primate fieldwork the magazine continued to popularize a more naturalistic view of great apes with fossey s work as well as that of biruté galdikas who studied orangutans in indonesia in the 1970s field researchers in the 1980s and 1990s were increasingly forced to confront the destruction of natural habitats which had been increasing over the century but had reached a fever pitch 47 goodall s shift from scientific field work to international conservation and education reflected a shift in focus that many researchers adopted women in primatology edit primatology has long been subject to debates regarding researchers pre existing opinions and biases in particular the use of primatological studies to assert gender roles and to both promote and subvert feminism has been a point of contention the evolution of primatology edit early research on baboon society starting with solly zuckerman s influential the social lives of monkeys and apes 1932 emphasized male male aggression and competition for females females were described as dedicated mothers to small infants and sexually available to males in order of the males dominance rank 48 female female competition and choice was ignored 49 in the 1960s as more women entered the field primatologists started looking more closely at female behavior studies by thelma rowell shirley strum and barbara smuts found that females are active participants and even leaders within their groups for instance rowell found that female baboons determine the route for daily foraging 48 shirley strum found that male investment in special relationships with females had a greater payoff in terms of producing offspring than their rank in a dominance hierarchy 50 a field researcher in madagascar alison jolly found that females dominated lemur social groups in 1970 jeanne altmann drew attention to representative sampling methods in which all individuals not just the dominant and the powerful were observed for equal periods of time prior to altmann s review primatologists used opportunistic sampling which only recorded what caught their attention thus preferencing the more physically active and aggressive males 51 sarah hrdy a self identified feminist was among the first to apply sociobiological theory to primates in her studies of infanticide in langurs 2 these female scientists as well as national geographic s jane goodall and dian fossey forced a reanalysis of how aggression reproductive access and dominance affect primate societies in the 1970s media and popular culture portrayed the field of primatology as a science dominated by women however the numbers told a more complicated story a 2011 study found that primatology like nearly all animal related studies drew far more female than male students yet most professors of primatology remained male 52 53 notable primatologists edit the following is a selected sample of scientists whose work focused on primates and who have shaped the field of primatology for a larger list see primatologists jeanne altmann american josé márcio ayres brazilian sarah blaffer hrdy american christophe boesch french swiss c r carpenter american dorothy cheney american david chivers english frans de waal dutch american linda fedigan american canadian dian fossey american agustin fuentes american birutė galdikas canadian richard lynch garner american jane goodall english harry harlow american robert hinde english junichiro itani japanese alison jolly american gladys kalema zikusoka ugandan nadezhda ladygina kohts russian kawai masao japanese tetsuro matsuzawa japanese emil wolfgang menzel jr american satsue mito japanese russell mittermeier american toshisada nishida japanese anne e russon canadian robert sapolsky american carel van schaik dutch robert seyfarth american barbara smuts american karen b strier american robert w sussman america michael tomasello american sherwood washburn american richard wrangham english robert yerkes american academic resources edit societies edit american society of primatologists european federation for primatology international primatological society journals edit american journal of primatology 54 folia primatologica international journal of primatology 55 journal of medical primatology 56 journal of human evolution 57 primate conservation primates see also edit physical anthropology human genetics human evolutionary genetics primate research centers primate archaeology references edit what is primatology primate info net retrieved 9 june 2011 1 2 rees amanda 2009 the infanticide controversy primatology and the art of field science chicago university of chicago press what is a primatologist primate info net retrieved 9 june 2011 1 2 fedigan and strum 1999 p 258 1 2 radhakrishna and jamieson 2018 fuentes augustin hockings kimberley j 24 august 2010 the ethnoprimatological approach to primatology american journal of primatology 72 10 841 847 doi 10 1002 ajp 20844 pmid 20806335 via wiley herzfeld p 20 browne janet messenger sharon december 2003 victorian spectacle julia pastrana the bearded and hairy female endeavor 27 4 155 159 doi 10 1016 j endeavour 2003 10 006 pmid 14652038 1 2 morris ramona and desmond 1966 men and apes new york mcgraw hill p 155 cohen 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