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ongdoing and rulers were obliged to respect treaties avoid exploiting enemies and treat the defeated with mercy 29 ambrose also seems to have regarded military force as permissible against heretics or in support of christian orthodoxy 30 nevertheless he strictly prohibited the church from direct involvement in violence insisting that clergy must not take up arms themselves 30 similarly warfare had to be undertaken only to fulfill divine law not for personal motives and any war driven by emotional excess vindictiveness or other disordered intentions fell outside the moral limits he envisioned 30 saint augustine edit saint augustine held that christians should not resort immediately to violence but that god has given the sword to governments for a good reason based upon romans 13 4 in contra faustum manichaeum book 22 sections 69 76 the main source for his just war ideas augustine argues that christians as part of a government need not be ashamed of protecting peace and punishing wickedness when they are obliged to do so augustine regarded intention as the main determinant of whether a war was just or sinful what is here required is not a bodily action but an inward disposition the sacred seat of virtue is the heart 31 nonetheless augustine asserted that peaceful inaction in the face of a grave wrong that could be rectified only by violence would be a sin defense of oneself or the innocent could therefore be a necessity especially when authorized by a legitimate state authority they who have waged war in obedience to the divine command or in conformity with his laws have represented in their persons the public justice or the wisdom of government and in this capacity have put to death wicked men such persons have by no means violated the commandment thou shalt not kill 32 but say they the wise man will wage just wars as if he would not all the rather lament the necessity of just wars if he remembers that he is a man for if they were not just he would not wage them and would therefore be delivered from all wars 32 no war is undertaken by a good state except on behalf of good faith or for safety 33 according to j mark mattox in terms of the traditional notion of jus ad bellum the circumstances under which wars can be justly fought war is a coping mechanism for righteous sovereigns who would ensure that their violent international encounters are minimal a reflection of the divine will to the greatest extent possible and always justified in terms of the traditional notion of jus in bello justice in war or the moral considerations which ought to constrain the use of violence in war war is a coping mechanism for righteous combatants who by divine edict have no choice but to subject themselves to their political masters and seek to ensure that they execute their war fighting duty as justly as possible 34 to summarize augustine explored the relationship between christian charity and the use of force in greater philosophical depth than ambrose though he ultimately affirmed many of the same principles 35 augustine did not attempt to craft a systematic doctrine of just war and his comments on it are scattered across his writing even so the foundations of what later became the classical just war tradition can be clearly identified in his thought 30 for augustine as for ambrose war could also be understood as analogous to a judicial process in which the political authority uses war to punish those who commit injustice 30 indeed he compared military action to civil litigation seeking restitution or punitive redress 30 since god was the ultimate judge and there were old testament precedents for his ordering of wars against israel s enemies and unbelievers just war could also become holy war or religious war 36 several core just war principles emerge from augustine s writing legitimate authority only public authorities may wage war private individuals have no right to initiate armed conflict 30 just cause defense of the community protection of allies or redress for wrongful acts are just causes for war though augustine also allowed for offensive action under certain circumstances citing moses expulsion of the amorites after they denied israel peaceful passage 30 right intention proper inner disposition is essential a ruler or soldier must act with a mindset comparable to that of a christian judge or executioner firm yet guided by love and compassion actions motivated by revenge wrath or greed invalidate any claim to justice in war 30 finally the ultimate goal of just war must be to establish peace 37 saint isidore of seville edit isidore of seville writes those wars are unjust which are undertaken without cause for aside from vengeance or to fight off enemies no just war can be waged 38 isidore offers a succinct definition of just war in his etymologiae describing it as a conflict waged by formal declaration either to recover seized property or to drive off an enemy 39 40 41 he immediately contrasts this with unjust war following ideas drawn from cicero s de re publica 30 although isidore s brief essentially roman formulation did not fully engage with augustine s more sophisticated thinking and did not fully incorporate subsequent christian or post roman developments it nevertheless became like the writings of saint gregory of tours an important conduit through which the conception of just war entered the high medieval period informing the decretum of gratian in particular 30 carolingian period edit the just war ideas of saint augustine of hippo and other church fathers were transmitted via saint isidore of seville saint gregory of tours and other scholars into the carolingian period informing the christianizing imperial project of charlemagne and the consequent carolingian renaissance 42 43 44 just holy war ideas about legitimate authority just cause punishment of enemies unbelievers and the establishment of peace therefore gained traction though traditional christian concerns particularly among clerics about the sinfulness of killing in war or being killed in a state of sin were reflected in sermons liturgies and penitential texts 45 46 47 48 this led to increasing deployment of military chaplains to enable soldiers to confess their sins and thereby reconcile themselves with god before battle 45 46 47 48 proto jus in bello rules to protect non combatants such as clergy nuns widows orphans and the poor including their property also began to appear in ecclesiastical texts as well as some capitularies laws or ordinances issued by charlemagne and other rulers anticipating the later peace of god and truce of god movements 30 peace and truce of god edit main article peace and truce of god the medieval peace of god latin pax dei was a 10th century mass movement in western europe instigated by the clergy that granted immunity from violence for non combatants starting in the 11th century the truce of god latin treuga dei involved church rules that successfully limited when and where fighting could occur catholic forces e g of warring barons could not fight each other on sundays thursdays holidays the entirety of lent and advent and other times severely disrupting the conduct of wars citation needed the 1179 third council of the lateran adopted a version of it for the whole church saint thomas aquinas edit further information thomas aquinas just war saint thomas aquinas contributed to the development of the just war theory in medieval europe the just war theory by saint thomas aquinas has had a lasting impact on later generations of thinkers and was part of an emerging consensus in medieval europe on just war 49 in the 13th century aquinas reflected in detail on peace and war aquinas was a dominican friar and contemplated the teachings of the bible on peace and war in combination with ideas from aristotle plato socrates saint augustine and other philosophers whose writings are part of the western canon aquinas views on war drew heavily on the decretum gratiani a book the italian monk gratian had compiled with passages from the bible after its publication in the 12th century the decretum gratiani had been republished with commentary from pope innocent iv and the dominican friar raymond of penafort other significant influences on aquinas just war theory were alexander of hales and henry of segusio 50 in summa theologica aquinas asserted that it is not always a sin to wage war and he set out criteria for a just war according to aquinas three requirements must be met firstly the war must be waged upon the command of a rightful sovereign secondly the war needs to be waged for just cause on account of some wrong the attacked have committed thirdly warriors must have the right intent namely to promote good and to avoid evil 51 52 aquinas came to the conclusion that a just war could be offensive and that injustice should not be tolerated so as to avoid war nevertheless aquinas argued that violence must only be used as a last resort on the battlefield violence was only justified to the extent it was necessary soldiers needed to avoid cruelty and a just war was limited by the conduct of just combatants aquinas argued that it was only in the pursuit of justice that the good intention of a moral act could justify negative consequences including the killing of the innocent during a war 53 renaissance and christian humanists edit various renaissance humanists promoted pacificist views john colet famously preached a lenten sermon before henry viii who was preparing for a war quoting cicero better an unjust peace rather than the justest war 54 erasmus of rotterdam wrote numerous works on peace which criticized just war theory as a smokescreen and added extra limitations notably the complaint of peace and the treatise on war dulce bellum inexpertis a leading humanist writer after the reformation was legal theorist hugo grotius whose de jura belli ac pacis re considered just war and fighting wars justly first world war edit at the beginning of the first world war a group of theologians in germany published a manifesto that sought to justify the actions of the german government at the british government s request randall davidson archbishop of canterbury took the lead in collaborating with a large number of other religious leaders including some with whom he had differed in the past to write a rebuttal of the germans contentions both german and british theologians based themselves on the just war theory each group seeking to prove that it applied to the war waged by its own side 55 contemporary catholic doctrine edit the just war doctrine of the catholic church found in the 1992 catechism of the catholic church in paragraph 2309 lists four strict conditions for legitimate defense by military force 56 57 the damage inflicted by the aggressor on the nation or community of nations must be lasting grave and certain all other means of putting an end to it must have been shown to be impractical or ineffective there must be serious prospects of success the use of arms must not produce evils and disorders graver than the evil to be eliminated the compendium of the social doctrine of the church elaborates on the just war doctrine in paragraphs 500 to 501 while citing the charter of the united nations 58 if this responsibility justifies the possession of sufficient means to exercise this right to defense states still have the obligation to do everything possible to ensure that the conditions of peace exist not only within their own territory but throughout the world it is important to remember that it is one thing to wage a war of self defense it is quite another to seek to impose domination on another nation the possession of war potential does not justify the use of force for political or military objectives nor does the mere fact that war has unfortunately broken out mean that all is fair between the warring parties the charter of the united nations is based on a generalized prohibition of a recourse to force to resolve disputes between states with the exception of two cases legitimate defence and measures taken by the security council within the area of its responsibilities for maintaining peace in every case exercising the right to self defence must respect the traditional limits of necessity and proportionality therefore engaging in a preventive war without clear proof that an attack is imminent cannot fail to raise serious moral and juridical questions international legitimacy for the use of armed force on the basis of rigorous assessment and with well founded motivations can only be given by the decision of a competent body that identifies specific situations as threats to peace and authorizes an intrusion into the sphere of autonomy usually reserved to a state compendium of the social doctrine of the church 58 pope john paul ii in an address to a group of soldiers noted the following 59 peace as taught by sacred scripture and the experience of men itself is more than just the absence of war and the christian is aware that on earth a human society that is completely and always peaceful is unfortunately an utopia and that the ideologies which present it as easily attainable only nourish vain hopes the cause of peace will not go forward by denying the possibility and the obligation to defend it evangelical lutheran churches edit the evangelical lutheran churches affirm just war doctrine it was formulated by martin luther a war can be considered just if it has just authority this means that it has the injunction of the god given calling of ruler emperor head of state and bearer of the sword in the civil realm a just war must have just cause and right intention just war is defensive whereas unjust war is offensive 60 martin luther states that worldly government has not been instituted by god to break the peace and start war but to maintain peace and to avoid war 60 in a just war combatants should be distinguished from non combatants when victory has been achieved one should offer mercy and peace to those who surrender and humble themselves 60 christians according to evangelical lutheran theology are not obligated to obey civil authorities when they wage a war that is unjust since moral duty requires obedience to god above all 60 russian orthodox church edit the war and peace section in the basis of the social concept of the russian orthodox church is crucial for understanding the russian orthodox church s attitude towards war the document offers criteria of distinguishing between an aggressive war which is unacceptable and a justified war attributing the highest moral and sacred value of military acts of bravery to a true believer who participates in a justified war additionally the document considers the just war criteria as developed in western christianity to be eligible for russian orthodoxy therefore the justified war theory in western theology is also applicable to the russian orthodox church 61 in the same document it is stated that wars have accompanied ...
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