Meta tags:
Headings (most frequently used words):
and, discovery, fission, oxides, effects, uranium, contents, characteristics, applications, history, occurrence, compounds, isotopes, human, exposure, see, also, notes, references, sources, cited, external, links, military, civilian, pre, use, research, nuclear, weaponry, reactors, prehistoric, naturally, occurring, contamination, the, cold, war, legacy, origin, biotic, abiotic, production, mining, resources, reserves, supplies, oxidation, states, hydrides, carbides, nitrides, halides, enrichment, precautions, aqueous, chemistry, carbonates, of, ph,
Text of the page (most frequently used words):
the (536), uranium (491), and (348), nuclear (125), from (101), for (90), with (78), retrieved (59), that (56), are (56), 235 (55), was (50), doi (45), has (44), 238 (43), #fission (40), which (39), #reactor (38), this (37), water (35), other (33), world (33), used (33), isotopes (32), atomic (30), archived (29), can (29), pmid (29), bibcode (29), been (29), its (28), metal (27), natural (27), original (27), than (27), decay (26), such (26), elements (25), fuel (25), half (25), most (25), energy (24), isotope (24), also (24), use (23), plutonium (23), power (23), high (23), may (22), isbn (22), national (22), process (22), weapons (22), neutron (22), thorium (22), depleted (22), fissile (22), health (22), pdf (21), neutrons (21), life (21), reactors (20), chemistry (20), exposure (20), march (20), earth (20), chemical (19), states (19), alpha (19), laboratory (19), have (19), when (19), about (18), new (18), compounds (18), two (18), july (18), 2007 (18), ore (18), first (18), 239 (18), not (18), years (18), more (18), 978 (17), known (17), project (16), production (16), produced (16), discovered (16), after (16), september (15), one (15), radiation (15), material (15), uranyl (15), radioactive (15), 2012 (15), forms (15), were (15), found (15), element (15), all (14), john (14), stable (14), mining (14), february (14), 2008 (14), reaction (14), form (14), oxide (14), main (14), oxides (14), technology (13), science (13), 2009 (13), discovery (13), some (13), see (13), because (13), but (13), into (13), over (13), per (13), 232 (13), tonnes (13), using (12), 2022 (12), lead (12), low (12), environmental (12), december (12), only (12), argonne (12), 236 (12), during (12), through (12), these (12), war (12), wikipedia (11), united (11), gas (11), history (11), enriched (11), 2001 (11), nature (11), enrichment (11), 233 (11), long (11), their (11), deposits (11), significant (11), common (11), million (11), carbonate (11), non (10), short (10), august (10), 2021 (10), manhattan (10), fast (10), phosphate (10), heat (10), light (10), grade (10), thermal (10), 1968 (10), state (10), april (10), will (10), s2cid (10), 2005 (10), issn (10), chain (10), january (10), research (10), radioactivity (10), oxidation (10), number (10), article (10), 000 (10), 112 (10), safety (9), containing (9), sources (9), bomb (9), little (9), waste (9), physics (9), university (9), 2016 (9), 2023 (9), pmc (9), journal (9), billion (9), uses (9), beta (9), primordial (9), naturally (9), soil (9), soluble (9), decays (9), several (9), toggle (8), materials (8), seaborg (8), fermi (8), fusion (8), sodium (8), many (8), spent (8), weapon (8), effects (8), emsley (8), review (8), development (8), 2013 (8), june (8), october (8), metals (8), properties (8), concentration (8), produce (8), solution (8), considered (8), plants (8), three (8), series (8), dioxide (8), concentrations (8), soviet (8), named (8), density (8), table (7), page (7), org (7), chicago (7), pile (7), aqueous (7), products (7), particle (7), capture (7), cancer (7), ucl (7), block (7), department (7), human (7), press (7), 2010 (7), 2011 (7), 2004 (7), resources (7), acid (7), product (7), physical (7), lived (7), 2006 (7), abundance (7), 2003 (7), hexafluoride (7), occurring (7), alkaline (7), russia (7), highly (7), air (7), produces (7), facilities (7), had (7), expected (7), since (7), quantities (7), undergo (7), neptunium (7), 234 (7), while (7), higher (7), 111 (7), yellow (7), parts (7), pitchblende (7), union (7), cold (7), view (6), cs1 (6), pages (6), including (6), data (6), control (6), graphite (6), boy (6), robert (6), james (6), enrico (6), salt (6), oak (6), ridge (6), laser (6), 300 (6), actinide (6), emission (6), nuclides (6), 2020 (6), institute (6), radon (6), agency (6), part (6), 1016 (6), 1021 (6), www (6), com (6), near (6), extraction (6), via (6), sea (6), 244 (6), early (6), royal (6), times (6), south (6), mines (6), australia (6), various (6), time (6), ores (6), klaproth (6), ion (6), countries (6), reserves (6), those (6), itself (6), very (6), radium (6), increased (6), due (6), made (6), occurs (6), weight (6), between (6), another (6), emitter (6), respectively (6), trace (6), relatively (6), dating (6), there (6), formed (6), prepared (6), hydrogen (6), exist (6), carbonates (6), industry (6), extract (6), later (6), glass (6), subsection (6), under (5), additional (5), commons (5), links (5), different (5), move (5), japan (5), international (5), report (5), bismuth (5), man (5), group (5), hiroshima (5), scientists (5), william (5), plant (5), field (5), cooled (5), small (5), liquid (5), 500 (5), molten (5), level (5), cycle (5), electron (5), processing (5), temperature (5), separation (5), ubr (5), iii (5), periodic (5), substances (5), encyclopedia (5), protection (5), occupational (5), toxic (5), derived (5), insoluble (5), 2014 (5), 2018 (5), oklo (5), year (5), mass (5), 2015 (5), 1103 (5), based (5), 130 (5), arxiv (5), applied (5), occurrence (5), though (5), kazakhstan (5), canada (5), origin (5), central (5), reduction (5), potassium (5), absorbed (5), people (5), 1993 (5), civilian (5), designed (5), der (5), 240 (5), meitner (5), hahn (5), increase (5), gold (5), observed (5), complexes (5), values (5), standard (5), sufficient (5), daughter (5), like (5), however (5), ions (5), work (5), government (5), ratio (5), method (5), silver (5), called (5), price (5), above (5), days (5), shorter (5), both (5), converted (5), then (5), enough (5), include (5), make (5), they (5), solid (5), temperatures (5), making (5), separate (5), conditions (5), hydroxide (5), least (5), 100 (5), molybdenum (5), plate (5), around (5), became (5), electricity (5), otto (5), uranus (5), glazes (5), mol (5), contents (4), search (4), available (4), site (4), last (4), 2026 (4), articles (4), category (4), german (4), republic (4), experiment (4), security (4), core (4), related (4), norman (4), richard (4), thomas (4), heavy (4), trinity (4), york (4), dense (4), organic (4), 600 (4), generation (4), breeder (4), 150 (4), iphwr (4), candu (4), phase (4), commission (4), disposal (4), free (4), tests (4), stockpiles (4), food (4), single (4), incidents (4), fertile (4), niosh (4), guide (4), 482 (4), oxford (4), public (4), lung (4), emitting (4), critical (4), contamination (4), environment (4), contaminated (4), eds (4), 1990 (4), letters (4), 126 (4), protactinium (4), rich (4), 1999 (4), ornl (4), should (4), term (4), van (4), obtained (4), 2002 (4), double (4), live (4), medium (4), 698 (4), hill (4), chem (4), 242 (4), american (4), limit (4), situ (4), association (4), largest (4), military (4), source (4), mine (4), minerals (4), species (4), intermediate (4), extinct (4), 2000 (4), fallout (4), rare (4), large (4), artificial (4), péligot (4), century (4), 1789 (4), metallic (4), gulf (4), 108 (4), applications (4), fissionable (4), society (4), tungsten (4), molecular (4), complex (4), germany (4), bond (4), commonly (4), rather (4), generally (4), range (4), cause (4), especially (4), amounts (4), rays (4), body (4), amount (4), usually (4), impurities (4), samples (4), gaseous (4), speed (4), diffusion (4), slightly (4), vapor (4), except (4), lives (4), 231 (4), less (4), spontaneous (4), 237 (4), able (4), nearly (4), makes (4), absorb (4), within (4), detonated (4), major (4), acids (4), hydride (4), alkali (4), compound (4), created (4), halides (4), carbides (4), mixture (4), nitrides (4), create (4), powder (4), further (4), often (4), salts (4), yellowcake (4), much (4), results (4), commercial (4), mined (4), typically (4), contain (4), lower (4), slow (4), abundant (4), built (4), device (4), led (4), sample (4), electrons (4), tools (4), becquerel (4), planet (4), appearance (4), hardness (4), lattice (4), hide (4), sidebar (4), statement (3), policy (3), wikimedia (3), foundation (3), inc (3), link (3), wikidata (3), service (3), language (3), wayback (3), description (3), dates (3), france (3), oppenheimer (3), act (3), african (3), fat (3), operation (3), nagasaki (3), george (3), charles (3), lawrence (3), groves (3), portal (3), magnetic (3), aircraft (3), others (3), helium (3), test (3), fluorides (3), 250 (3), 220 (3), 1000 (3), pressurized (3), moderator (3), out (3), america (3), future (3), activation (3), minor (3), yield (3), underground (3), beam (3), therapy (3), medicine (3), accidents (3), engineering (3), cdc (3), hazards (3), vol (3), deposit (3), analysis (3), help (3), cite (3), company (3), building (3), blocks (3), cited (3), fact (3), toxicology (3), workers (3), 2017 (3), risk (3), disease (3), reviews (3), sahoo (3), kumar (3), groundwater (3), total (3), surfaces (3), schnug (3), wiley (3), 2019 (3), news (3), physrevlett (3), 115 (3), surface (3), analytical (3), 132502 (3), nuclei (3), reactions (3), 2nd (3), 116 (3), 1038 (3), nucleosynthesis (3), 1088 (3), 1963 (3), mcgraw (3), modern (3), elsevier (3), expansion (3), seawater (3), demand (3), supplies (3), supply (3), crc (3), microbiology (3), phok (3), solutions (3), white (3), remove (3), geobacter (3), 1126 (3), citrobacter (3), evidence (3), key (3), china (3), theory (3), fertilizers (3), 1997 (3), survey (3), navajo (3), among (3), ground (3), 1956 (3), 1954 (3), 212 (3), nier (3), 1939 (3), 143 (3), frisch (3), induced (3), bombardment (3), naming (3), english (3), newly (3), associated (3), 1960s (3), november (3), columbia (3), anions (3), pure (3), weights (3), references (3), each (3), crystal (3), average (3), thought (3), list (3), besides (3), being (3), skin (3), exposed (3), turn (3), iodine (3), released (3), particles (3), ingested (3), becomes (3), hour (3), where (3), either (3), confirmed (3), leading (3), fluorine (3), precipitate (3), fraction (3), atom (3), even (3), yet (3), undergoes (3), too (3), important (3), useful (3), few (3), 1945 (3), age (3), consists (3), 118 (3), having (3), formation (3), strong (3), direct (3), stability (3), increases (3), chlorine (3), react (3), pressure (3), diuranium (3), carbon (3), heated (3), hydrides (3), studied (3), red (3), green (3), simple (3), chloride (3), triuranium (3), octoxide (3), contains (3), oxidized (3), content (3), left (3), late (3), log (3), mineral (3), tons (3), namibia (3), uzbekistan (3), africa (3), estimated (3), present (3), example (3), program (3), ability (3), uraninite (3), almost (3), rock (3), crust (3), four (3), russian (3), federal (3), scale (3), miners (3), legacy (3), sustained (3), capacity (3), station (3), initially (3), bulbs (3), began (3), types (3), team (3), working (3), isolated (3), account (3), lise (3), characteristics (3), 1896 (3), photographic (3), henri (3), eugène (3), melchior (3), black (3), martin (3), heinrich (3), extracted (3), bombs (3), armor (3), titanium (3), point (3), orthorhombic (3), silvery (3), edit (3), gpa (3), modulus (3), radius (3), add (2), 170 (2), languages (2), contact (2), privacy (2), terms (2), rendered (2), categories (2), date (2), maint (2), deprecated (2), archival (2), potentially (2), dated (2), statements (2), multiple (2), turkish (2), url (2), indefinitely (2), protected (2), semi (2), pyrophoric (2), mediated (2), fuels (2), actinides (2), czech (2), special (2), smyth (2), committee (2), hearing (2), nobel (2), los (2), alamos (2), franck (2), feed (2), szilard (2), british (2), contribution (2), americans (2), topics (2), thin (2), bombings (2), alsos (2), wilson (2), eugene (2), wigner (2), edward (2), glenn (2), dunning (2), bohr (2), paul (2), frank (2), kenneth (2), leslie (2), sites (2), pinch (2), inertial (2), reversed (2), configuration (2), fbr (2), 800 (2), 350 (2), wave (2), 550 (2), integral (2), tmsr (2), fluoride (2), htr (2), advanced (2), magnox (2), coolant (2), 540 (2), 900 (2), 200 (2), apr (2), boiling (2), blue (2), repository (2), decommissioning (2), historical (2), lists (2), testing (2), proliferation (2), explosion (2), disarmament (2), design (2), arms (2), race (2), irradiation (2), proton (2), targeted (2), positron (2), propulsion (2), effect (2), cross (2), section (2), poison (2), deuterium (2), tritium (2), nucleus (2), coo (2), organouranium (2), services (2), machine (2), atsdr (2), case (2), studies (2), pocket (2), britannica (2), information (2), administration (2), dictionary (2), external (2), book (2), 1962 (2), now (2), 773 (2), england (2), 850340 (2), 476 (2), office (2), williams (2), medical (2), alan (2), eric (2), matthew (2), 1097 (2), radionuclides (2), 180 (2), industrial (2), brugge (2), registry (2), cas (2), 7440 (2), toxicological (2), 1080 (2), rao (2), 136278 (2), 1879 (2), chemosphere (2), 153947 (2), francis (2), steel (2), recovery (2), 2005enst (2), netherlands (2), loads (2), sons (2), oclc (2), 470 (2), radionuclide (2), meet (2), old (2), academic (2), dye (2), principles (2), peter (2), 242502 (2), 221 (2), osti (2), acs (2), sulfur (2), measurements (2), 241 (2), zhang (2), 152502 (2), 214 (2), 106 (2), what (2), needs (2), tables (2), update (2), nucl (2), 015801 (2), end (2), 1980 (2), hdl (2), 0004 (2), 637x (2), 121 (2), calculated (2), anion (2), 782 (2), equilibrium (2), scientific (2), find (2), announced (2), somalia (2), zaman (2), mithridates (2), exchange (2), monthly (2), spot (2), gov (2), biological (2), 1002 (2), how (2), megatons (2), megawatts (2), warheads (2), 8493 (2), athabasca (2), basin (2), saskatchewan (2), 2025 (2), 1128 (2), aem (2), phosphatase (2), strain (2), bsar (2), bioprecipitation (2), sphingomonas (2), 156 (2), bioremediation (2), 5891 (2), 5884 (2), activity (2), grey (2), result (2), growth (2), 1496397 (2), 257 (2), lines (2), shewanella (2), pentavalent (2), 1371 (2), distribution (2), geology (2), solar (2), parent (2), evolution (2), burbidge (2), 547 (2), chemicals (2), productivity (2), scientist (2), hospitals (2), 832 (2), 9166072 (2), ajph (2), 1410 (2), mexico (2), disasters (2), 203 (2), submarine (2), 1998 (2), 1943 (2), 4501 (2), 1369 (2), manfred (2), spektrum (2), alfred (2), type (2), property (2), 1938 (2), technical (2), print (2), google (2), books (2), westinghouse (2), club (2), 1007 (2), heritage (2), substance (2), chemische (2), des (2), universities (2), dentures (2), 1970s (2), federation (2), force (2), munitions (2), 160 (2), 4020 (2), nrc (2), handbook (2), companies (2), cryptand (2), sime (2), identification (2), 135 (2), soc (2), 144 (2), octacarbonyl (2), 11784 (2), 11772 (2), notes (2), earlier (2), projects (2), handled (2), concentrate (2), 152 (2), finely (2), divided (2), presents (2), hazard (2), ignite (2), room (2), normal (2), systems (2), weakly (2), local (2), primary (2), penetrate (2), inhaled (2), published (2), classified (2), threat (2), wastes (2), 131 (2), strontium (2), 146 (2), reproductive (2), liver (2), kidney (2), precautions (2), cannot (2), absorption (2), gamma (2), affinity (2), dna (2), whereas (2), pass (2), dust (2), phosphates (2), bone (2), set (2), workday (2), 136 (2), person (2), who (2), fired (2), enrich (2), incidence (2), coal (2), deviation (2), any (2), akin (2), theoretically (2), ratios (2), gabon (2), separated (2), heavier (2), employs (2), alternative (2), visible (2), lasers (2), zinc (2), centrifuges (2), huge (2), kilogram (2), 132 (2), must (2), impact (2), atoms (2), sustain (2), needed (2), identified (2), ranging (2), lighter (2), primarily (2), 127 (2), 229 (2), 230 (2), branches (2), would (2), 124 (2), 208 (2), greater (2), possible (2), 209 (2), thallium (2), 123 (2), progenitor (2), 206 (2), does (2), captures (2), required (2), 342 (2), next (2), predominantly (2), decaying (2), members (2), eventually (2), radiometric (2), actinium (2), roughly (2), 463 (2), releasing (2), never (2), protons (2), occur (2), along (2), adding (2), oxyhalides (2), decrease (2), component (2), halide (2), bromine (2), chlorides (2), tetrachloride (2), resulting (2), easily (2), reactive (2), endothermic (2), following (2), right (2), exposing (2), below (2), 113 (2), nitrogen (2), monoxide (2), reacts (2), starting (2), carbide (2), solubility (2), bearing (2), diagrams (2), presence (2), anionic (2), relative (2), complexing (2), perchloric (2), pourbaix (2), majority (2), polyatomic (2), unstable (2), 109 (2), acetate (2), sulfate (2), depending (2), convert (2), preferred (2), storage (2), oxygen (2), system (2), calcined (2), retention (2), recovered (2), believed (2), estimating (2), accounted (2), concentrated (2), become (2), market (2), niger (2), ukraine (2), leaching (2), dissolved (2), 1980s (2), experiments (2), researchers (2), absorbent (2), supplied (2), located (2), prefecture (2), calcium (2), precipitation (2), before (2), dry (2), wood (2), day (2), leads (2), excess (2), bacteria (2), recent (2), organisms (2), gram (2), could (2), biotic (2), abiotic (2), accounting (2), producing (2), occurred (2), extent (2), parents (2), 247 (2), iron (2), commercially (2), sio (2), 12h (2), arsenic (2), mercury (2), cadmium (2), tin (2), antimony (2), highest (2), drives (2), mantle (2), equivalent (2), budget (2), programs (2), event (2), tens (2), thousands (2), metric (2), operated (2), improvements (2), break (2), physicist (2), supporting (2), store (2), prehistoric (2), 1951 (2), lit (2), arco (2), come (2), generated (2), experimental (2), came (2), general (2), developed (2), whose (2), weaponry (2), lamp (2), 1934 (2), bombarding (2), release (2), berlin (2), far (2), wartime (2), prominent (2), transmuted (2), fritz (2), binding (2), paris (2), top (2), 1841 (2), arts (2), credited (2), greek (2), god (2), sky (2), nitric (2), roman (2), ceramic (2), pre (2), well (2), targets (2), ray (2), stains (2), glowing (2), isolation (2), dark (2), pottery (2), bulk (2), unenriched (2), sector (2), lesser (2), complicated (2), shielding (2), penetrators (2), melting (2), malleable (2), ductile (2), centered (2), cubic (2), 427 (2), 775 (2), tetragonal (2), space (2), parameters (2), 668 (2), 285 (2), 495 (2), absorbing (2), meaning (2), barium (2), hydrochloric (2), electrical (2), paramagnetic (2), niobium (2), manganese (2), rhodium (2), talk (2), mpa (2), period (2), upload (2), file (2), changes (2), read (2), norsk (2), bahasa (2), коми (2), беларуская (2), donate (2), menu (2), topic, mobile, cookie, statistics, developers, code, conduct, legal, contacts, disclaimers, text, apply, you, agree, registered, trademark, profit, organization, creative, attribution, sharealike, license, parsoid, edited, utc, hidden, incorporating, citation, eb9, errors, image, auto, scaled, images, unfit, webarchive, template, recorded, pronunciations, phonos, extension, dmy, suspected, male, teratogens, https, index, php, title, oldid, 1373704317, yale, lux, nara, israel, spain, bnf, gnd, authority, databases, engineer, detachment, executive, rala, quebec, agreement, prize, laureates, primer, interim, einstein, letter, demon, calutron, girls, 1946, pumpkin, great, artiste, bockscar, enola, gay, 509th, composite, silverplate, alberta, peppermint, crossroads, mission, operations, chien, shiung, leona, woods, wheeler, von, neumann, stanisław, ulam, teller, leo, henry, dewolf, louis, slotin, emilio, segrè, bruno, rossi, rainwater, isidor, isaac, rabi, ramsey, pegram, mark, oliphant, edwin, mcmillan, willard, libby, koval, kistiakowsky, maria, goeppert, mayer, klaus, fuchs, val, fitch, feynman, harry, daghlian, critchfield, cockcroft, chadwick, norris, bradbury, niels, aage, hans, bethe, bacher, luis, alvarez, roscoe, westcott, stafford, warren, harold, urey, bud, uanna, tibbets, spedding, purnell, boris, pash, deak, parsons, nichols, dorothy, mckibbin, franklin, matthias, marshall, ernest, lansdale, farrell, priscilla, duffield, conant, arthur, compton, vannevar, bush, lyman, briggs, administrators, wendover, wells, pilot, montreal, inyokern, hanford, dayton, berkeley, ames, timeline, pyroelectric, polywell, muon, catalyzed, migma, plasma, focus, magnetized, target, driven, electrostatic, fusor, bubble, acoustic, tokamak, stellarator, spheromak, levitated, dipole, confinement, piqua, arbus, omre, pipe, ssr, gfr, brest, prism, pfr, cefr, pfbr, superphénix, phénix, cfr, 1200, sfr, dual, fluid, dfr, fbtr, reduced, moderation, rmwr, multiplier, module, em2, traveling, twr, sealed, transportable, autonomous, sstar, 40a, lmfr, ifr, none, lf1, imsr, msre, lftr, fuji, msr, pmr, thtr, avr, pbr, pbmr, vhtr, htgr, uhtrex, mhr, gtmhr, agr, ungg, naturel, gaz, mker, rbmk, egp, amb, lwgr, lucens, kkn, hwgcr, ahwr, steam, generating, sghwr, blwr, atr, hwlwr, marviken, mzfr, phwr, kwu, 700, cvtr, acr, afcr, ec6, supercritical, scwr, ipwr, 650, klt, ritm, vver, acp1000, acpr1000, hualong, epr, cpr, cap1400, atmea1, apwr, 1400, ap1000, kerena, esbwr, abwr, bwrx, bwr, homogeneous, anti, movement, ribbon, debate, transmutation, cask, pool, reprocessing, llw, hlw, llfp, reprocessed, zones, wmd, treaties, tnte, warfare, altitude, ethics, delivery, gemstone, gardening, radiopharmacology, radiosurgery, brachytherapy, tomotherapy, tomography, pet, photon, spect, scintigraphy, radball, autoradiograph, imaging, meltdown, rocket, mmrtg, radioisotope, thermoelectric, rtg, economics, country, reflector, generator, braking, ionizing, outline, hypothetical, xii, znuo, cho, mgu, ute, usi, nottingham, videos, toxicity, nlm, hazardous, databank, annotated, bibliography, digital, library, 1888, xxiv, 9th, encyclopædia, dittmar, maps, look, wiktionary, media, incompatibility, harper, 306, 80189, told, story, reinhold, corporation, 786, 68029938, lccn, skokie, illinois, washington, sheets, dart, lippincott, wilkins, 1468, 7817, 2845, chart, reviewed, exposures, fernald, center, grellier, atkinson, bérard, philippe, bingham, derek, birchall, blanchardon, bull, guseva, canu, irina, challeton, vathaire, cécile, cockerill, rupert, minh, engels, hilde, figuerola, jordi, foster, adrian, holmstock, luc, hurtgen, christian, laurier, dominique, puncher, riddell, tony, samson, thierry, chef, isabelle, tirmarche, margot, vrijheid, martine, cardis, elisabeth, 684, 28520643, 5540354, ede, 0000000000000684, 675, epidemiology, mortality, internal, arfsten, still, ritchie, reproduction, fetal, 25310165, 12539863, 1191, 0748233701th111oa, 2001toxih, 180a, hindin, rita, panikkar, 16124873, 1242351, 1186, 1476, 069x, 2005envhe, 17h, environ, teratogenicity, aerosols, epidemiological, perspective, atlanta, profile, relevance, craft, abu, qare, flaherty, garofolo, rincavage, abou, donia, 317, 9357795, 15205046, 10937400490452714, 2004jtehb, 297c, 297, prusty, sourav, somu, prathap, jitendra, panda, debasish, sunil, shraban, lee, yong, rok, jarin, sundar, syam, koppula, srinivas, adsorptive, sequestration, noxious, comprehensive, 251999162, 36057349, 1298, 2022chmsp
Text of the page (random words):
anium from sea water 95 but the yield has been low due to the carbonate present in the water in 2012 ornl researchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed hicap which performs surface retention of solid or gas molecules atoms or ions and also effectively removes toxic metals from water according to results verified by researchers at pacific northwest national laboratory 96 97 supplies main article uranium market see also 2000s commodities boom monthly uranium spot price in us per pound the 2007 price peak is clearly visible 98 in 2005 ten countries accounted for the majority of the world s concentrated uranium oxides canada 27 9 australia 22 8 kazakhstan 10 5 russia 8 0 namibia 7 5 niger 7 4 uzbekistan 5 5 the united states 2 5 argentina 2 1 and ukraine 1 9 99 in 2008 kazakhstan was forecast to increase production and become the world s largest supplier of uranium by 2009 100 101 kazakhstan has dominated the world s uranium market since 2010 in 2021 its share was 45 1 followed by namibia 11 9 canada 9 7 australia 8 7 uzbekistan 7 2 niger 4 7 russia 5 5 china 3 9 india 1 3 ukraine 0 9 and south africa 0 8 with a world total production of 48 332 tonnes 82 most uranium was produced not by conventional underground mining of ores 29 of production but by in situ leaching 66 82 102 in the late 1960s un geologists discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves in somalia the find was the largest of its kind with industry experts estimating the deposits at over 25 of the world s then known uranium reserves of 800 000 tons 103 the ultimate available supply is believed to be sufficient for at least the next 85 years 88 though some studies indicate underinvestment in the late twentieth century may produce supply problems in the 21st century 104 uranium deposits seem to be log normal distributed there is a 300 fold increase in the amount of uranium recoverable for each tenfold decrease in ore grade 105 in other words there is little high grade ore and proportionately much more low grade ore available compounds main article uranium compounds reactions of uranium metal oxidation states and oxides oxides see also uranium oxide triuranium octoxide left and uranium dioxide right are the two most common uranium oxides calcined uranium yellowcake as produced in many large mills contains a distribution of uranium oxidation species in various forms ranging from most oxidized to least oxidized particles with short residence times in a calciner will generally be less oxidized than those with long retention times or particles recovered in the stack scrubber uranium content is usually referenced to u 3 o 8 which dates to the days of the manhattan project when u 3 o 8 was used as an analytical chemistry reporting standard 106 phase relationships in the uranium oxygen system are complex the most important oxidation states of uranium are uranium iv and uranium vi and their two corresponding oxides are respectively uranium dioxide uo 2 and uranium trioxide uo 3 107 other uranium oxides such as uranium monoxide uo diuranium pentoxide u 2 o 5 and uranium peroxide uo 4 2h 2 o also exist the most common forms of uranium oxide are triuranium octoxide u 3 o 8 and uo 2 108 both oxide forms are solids that have low solubility in water and are relatively stable over a wide range of environmental conditions triuranium octoxide is depending on conditions the most stable compound of uranium and is the form most commonly found in nature uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is most commonly used as a nuclear reactor fuel 108 at ambient temperatures uo 2 will gradually convert to u 3 o 8 because of their stability uranium oxides are generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage or disposal 108 aqueous chemistry uranium in its oxidation states iii iv v vi salts of many oxidation states of uranium are water soluble and may be studied in aqueous solutions the most common ionic forms are u 3 brown red u 4 green uo 2 unstable and uo 2 2 yellow for u iii u iv u v and u vi respectively 109 a few solid and semi metallic compounds such as uo and us exist for the formal oxidation state uranium ii but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that state ions of u 3 liberate hydrogen from water and are therefore considered to be highly unstable the uo 2 2 ion represents the uranium vi state and is known to form compounds such as uranyl carbonate uranyl chloride and uranyl sulfate uo 2 2 also forms complexes with various organic chelating agents the most commonly encountered of which is uranyl acetate 109 unlike the uranyl salts of uranium and polyatomic ion uranium oxide cationic forms the uranates salts containing a polyatomic uranium oxide anion are generally not water soluble 110 carbonates the interactions of carbonate anions with uranium vi cause the pourbaix diagram to change greatly when the medium is changed from water to a carbonate containing solution while the vast majority of carbonates are insoluble in water students are often taught that all carbonates other than those of alkali metals are insoluble in water uranium carbonates are often soluble in water this is because a u vi cation is able to bind two terminal oxides and three or more carbonates to form anionic complexes pourbaix diagrams 111 uranium in a non complexing aqueous medium e g perchloric acid sodium hydroxide 111 uranium in carbonate solution relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in a non complexing aqueous medium e g perchloric acid sodium hydroxide 111 relative concentrations of the different chemical forms of uranium in an aqueous carbonate solution 111 effects of ph the uranium fraction diagrams in the presence of carbonate illustrate this further when the ph of a uranium vi solution increases the uranium is converted to a hydrated uranium oxide hydroxide at high ph it becomes an anionic hydroxide complex 111 when carbonate is added uranium is converted to a series of carbonate complexes if the ph is increased one effect of these reactions is increased solubility of uranium in the ph range 6 to 8 a fact that has a direct bearing on the long term stability of spent uranium dioxide nuclear fuels 111 hydrides carbides and nitrides uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 c 482 to 572 f reacts with hydrogen to form uranium hydride even higher temperatures will reversibly remove the hydrogen this property makes uranium hydrides convenient starting materials to create reactive uranium powder along with various uranium carbide nitride and halide compounds 112 two crystal modifications of uranium hydride exist an α form that is obtained at low temperatures and a β form that is created when the formation temperature is above 250 c 112 uranium carbides and uranium nitrides are both relatively inert semimetallic compounds that are minimally soluble in acids react with water and can ignite in air to form u 3 o 8 112 carbides of uranium include uranium monocarbide u c uranium dicarbide uc 2 and diuranium tricarbide u 2 c 3 both uc and uc 2 are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal to carbon monoxide at high temperatures stable below 1800 c u 2 c 3 is prepared by subjecting a heated mixture of uc and uc 2 to mechanical stress 113 uranium nitrides obtained by direct exposure of the metal to nitrogen include uranium mononitride un uranium dinitride un 2 and diuranium trinitride u 2 n 3 113 halides uranium hexafluoride is the feedstock used to separate uranium 235 from natural uranium all uranium fluorides are created using uranium tetrafluoride uf 4 uf 4 itself is prepared by hydrofluorination of uranium dioxide 112 reduction of uf 4 with hydrogen at 1000 c produces uranium trifluoride uf 3 under the right conditions of temperature and pressure the reaction of solid uf 4 with gaseous uranium hexafluoride uf 6 can form the intermediate fluorides of u 2 f 9 u 4 f 17 and uf 5 112 at room temperatures uf 6 has a high vapor pressure making it useful in the gaseous diffusion process to separate the rare uranium 235 from the common uranium 238 isotope this compound can be prepared from uranium dioxide and uranium hydride by the following process 112 uo 2 4 hf uf 4 2 h 2 o 500 c endothermic uf 4 f 2 uf 6 350 c endothermic the resulting uf 6 a white solid is highly reactive by fluorination easily sublimes emitting a vapor that behaves as a nearly ideal gas and is the most volatile compound of uranium known to exist 112 uranium hexafluorides iv and v can be used to make several hexafluorouranates as they are anions uf 6 and uf 6 2 they bond with alkali metals certain transition metals and other non metal compounds 114 115 one method of preparing uranium tetrachloride ucl 4 is to directly combine chlorine with either uranium metal or uranium hydride the reduction of ucl 4 by hydrogen produces uranium trichloride ucl 3 while the higher chlorides of uranium are prepared by reaction with additional chlorine 112 all uranium chlorides react with water and air bromides and iodides of uranium are formed by direct reaction of respectively bromine and iodine with uranium or by adding uh 3 to those element s acids 112 known examples include ubr 3 ubr 4 ui 3 and ui 4 ui 5 has never been prepared uranium oxyhalides are water soluble and include uo 2 f 2 uocl 2 uo 2 cl 2 and uo 2 br 2 stability of the oxyhalides decrease as the atomic weight of the component halide increases 112 isotopes main article isotopes of uranium uranium like all elements with an atomic number greater than 82 has no stable isotopes all isotopes of uranium are radioactive because the strong nuclear force does not prevail over electromagnetic repulsion in nuclides containing more than 82 protons 116 nevertheless the two most stable isotopes 238 u and 235 u have half lives long enough to occur in nature as primordial radionuclides with measurable quantities having survived since the formation of the earth 117 these two nuclides along with thorium 232 are the only confirmed primordial nuclides heavier than nearly stable bismuth 209 8 118 natural uranium consists of three major isotopes uranium 238 99 28 natural abundance uranium 235 0 71 and uranium 234 0 0054 there are also five other trace isotopes uranium 240 a decay product of plutonium 244 118 uranium 239 which is formed when 238 u undergoes spontaneous fission releasing neutrons that are captured by another 238 u atom uranium 237 which is formed when 238 u captures a neutron but emits two more which then decays to neptunium 237 uranium 236 which occurs in trace quantities due to neutron capture on 235 u and as a decay product of plutonium 244 118 and finally uranium 233 which is formed in the decay chain of neptunium 237 additionally uranium 232 would be produced by the double beta decay of natural thorium 232 though this energetically possible process has never been observed 121 uranium 238 is the most stable isotope of uranium with a half life of about 4 463 10 9 years 8 roughly the age of the earth uranium 238 is predominantly an alpha emitter decaying to thorium 234 it ultimately decays through the uranium series which has 18 members into lead 206 17 uranium 238 is not fissile but is a fertile isotope because after neutron activation it can be converted to plutonium 239 another fissile isotope indeed the 238 u nucleus can absorb one neutron to produce the radioactive isotope uranium 239 239 u decays by beta emission to neptunium 239 also a beta emitter that decays in its turn within a few days into plutonium 239 239 pu was used as fissile material in the first atomic bomb detonated in the trinity test on 16 july 1945 in new mexico 40 uranium 235 has a half life of about 7 04 10 8 years it is the next most stable uranium isotope after 238 u and is also predominantly an alpha emitter decaying to thorium 231 8 uranium 235 is important for both nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons because it is the only uranium isotope existing in nature on earth in significant amounts that is fissile this means that it can be split into two or three fragments fission products by thermal neutrons 17 the decay chain of 235 u which is called the actinium series has 15 members and eventually decays into lead 207 17 the constant rates of decay in these decay series makes the comparison of the ratios of parent to daughter elements useful in radiometric dating uranium 236 has a half life of 2 342 10 7 years 8 and is not found in significant quantities in nature the half life of uranium 236 is too short for it to be primordial though it has been identified as an extinct progenitor of its alpha decay daughter thorium 232 71 uranium 236 occurs in spent nuclear fuel when neutron capture on 235 u does not induce fission or as a decay product of plutonium 240 uranium 236 is not fertile as three more neutron captures are required to produce fissile 239 pu and is not itself fissile as such it is considered long lived radioactive waste 122 uranium 234 is a member of the uranium series and occurs in equilibrium with its progenitor 238 u it undergoes alpha decay with a half life of 245 500 years 8 and decays to lead 206 through a series of relatively short lived isotopes uranium 233 undergoes alpha decay with a half life of 160 000 years and like 235 u is fissile 12 it can be bred from thorium 232 via neutron bombardment usually in a nuclear reactor this process is known as the thorium fuel cycle owing to the fissility of 233 u and the greater natural abundance of thorium three times that of uranium 123 233 u has been investigated for use as nuclear fuel as a possible alternative to 235 u and 239 pu 124 though is not in widespread use as of 2022 update 123 the decay chain of uranium 233 forms part of the neptunium series and ends at nearly stable bismuth 209 half life 2 01 10 19 years 8 and stable thallium 205 uranium 232 is an alpha emitter with a half life of 68 9 years 8 this isotope is produced as a byproduct in production of 233 u and is considered a nuisance as it is not fissile and decays through short lived alpha and gamma emitters such as 208 tl 124 it is also expected that thorium 232 should be able to undergo double beta decay which would produce uranium 232 but this has not yet been observed experimentally 8 all isotopes from 232 u to 236 u inclusive have minor cluster decay branches less than 10 10 and all these bar 233 u in addition to 238 u have minor spontaneous fission branches 8 the greatest branching ratio for spontaneous fission is about 5 10 5 for 238 u or about one in every two million decays 125 the shorter lived trace isotopes 237 u and 239 u exclusively undergo beta decay with respective half lives of 6 752 days and 23 45 minutes 8 in total 28 isotopes of uranium have been identified ranging in mass number from 214 126 to 242 with the exception of 220 8 127 among the uranium isotopes not found in natural samples or nuclear fuel the longest lived is 230 u an alpha emitter wit...
|
