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erners such as captain james cook in the 18th century at the turn of the 20th century the french artist paul gauguin spent significant amounts of time in tahiti living with local people and making modern art a fact that has become intertwined with tahitian visual culture to the present day citation needed the indigenous art of australia often looks like abstract modern art but it has deep roots in local culture the art of oceania is the last great tradition of art to be appreciated by the world at large despite being one of the longest continuous traditions of art in the world dating back at least fifty millennia it remained relatively unknown until the second half of the 20th century the often ephemeral materials of aboriginal art of australia makes it difficult to determine the antiquity of the majority of the forms of art practised today the most durable forms are the multitudes of rock engravings and rock paintings which are found across the continent in the arnhem land escarpment evidence suggests that paintings were being made fifty thousand years ago antedating the palaeolithic rock paintings of altamira lascaux in europe hoa hakananai a an example of a moai c 1200 ad flow lava height 242 cm british museum london 112 statue of a a from rurutu probably 18th century wood height 117 cm british museum 113 taurapa māori canoe sternpost late 18th early 19th century wood and sheel height 148 cm musée du quai branly paris 114 australian painting of a kangaroo totemic ancestor c 1915 painting on bark 92 5 35 5 cm musée du quai branly european edit main article art of europe medieval edit main article medieval art with the decline of the roman empire from c 300 ad a period subsequently defined as the medieval era began it lasted for about a millennium until the beginning of the renaissance c 1400 early christian art typifies the early stages of this period followed by byzantine art anglo saxon art viking art ottonian art romanesque art and gothic art with islamic art dominating the eastern mediterranean medieval art grew out of the artistic heritage of the roman empire and of byzantium mixed with the barbarian artistic culture of northern europe 115 in byzantine and gothic art of the middle ages the dominance of the church resulted in a large amount of religious art there was extensive use of gold in paintings which presented figures in simplified forms byzantine edit main article byzantine art the hagia sophia istanbul turkey c 532 537 bc by anthemius of tralles and isidore of miletus 116 byzantine art consists of the body of christian greek artistic products of the eastern roman byzantine empire 117 118 as well as of the nations and states that inherited culturally from that empire though the byzantine empire itself emerged from rome s decline and lasted until the fall of constantinople in 1453 119 the start date of the byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history if still imprecise many eastern orthodox states in eastern and central europe as well as to some degree the muslim states of the eastern mediterranean preserved many aspects of the empire s culture and art for centuries afterward surviving byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms painting in fresco in illuminated manuscripts and on wood panels and especially in earlier periods mosaic were the main media and figurative sculpture occurred very rarely except for small carved ivories manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works 120 byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought after in western europe where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the medieval period this was especially so in italy where byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century and became formative influences on italian renaissance art but few incoming influences affected the byzantine style with the expansion of the eastern orthodox church byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the orthodox world and beyond 121 influences from byzantine architecture particularly in religious buildings can be found in diverse regions from egypt and arabia to russia and romania byzantine architecture is notorious for the use of domes it also often featured marble columns coffered ceilings and sumptuous decoration including the extensive use of mosaics with golden backgrounds the building material used by byzantine architects was no longer marble which the ancient greeks had appreciated so much the byzantines used mostly stone and brick and also thin alabaster sheets for windows mosaics were used to cover brick walls and any other surface where fresco wouldn t resist good examples of mosaics from the proto byzantine era are in hagios demetrios in thessaloniki greece the basilica of sant apollinare nuovo and the basilica of san vitale both in ravenna in italy and in hagia sophia in istanbul greco roman temples and byzantine churches differ substantially in terms of their exterior and interior aspect in antiquity the exterior was the most important part of the temple because in the interior which contained the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built only the priest had access temple ceremonies in antiquity took place outside and what the worshippers viewed was the facade of the temple consisting of columns with an entablature and two pediments in contrast christian liturgies played out in the interior of the churches thus the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation 122 123 christ as the good shepherd c 425 430 mosaic width c 3 m mausoleum of galla placidia ravenna italy 124 feeding of the five thousand c 520 mosaic unknown dimensions basilica of sant apollinare nuovo ravenna italy basilica of sant apollinare in classe ravenna unknown architect c 530 125 diptych leaf with a byzantine empress 6th century ivory with traces of gilding and leaf height 26 5 cm kunsthistorisches museum vienna austria 126 collier late 6th 7th century gold an emerald a sapphire amethysts and pearls diameter 23 cm from a constantinopolitan workshop antikensammlung berlin berlin germany 127 page of the gospel book with commentaries portrait of mark 1000 1100 ink tempera gold vellum and leather binding sheet 28 23 cm cleveland museum of art cleveland ohio us ladder of divine ascent late 12th century tempera and gold leaf on panel 41 x 29 5 cm saint catherine s monastery sinai peninsula egypt 128 madonna and child on a curved throne c 1280 tempera on panel 81 5 x 49 cm national gallery of art washington d c 129 carolingian and ottonian edit main articles carolingian art and ottonian art aachen gospels around 820 codex aureus of st emmeram 870 the essen cross with large enamels with gems and large senkschmelz enamels c 1000 apotheosis of otto iii liuthar gospels around 1000 carolingian art 8th 9th centuries emerged under charlemagne s rule blending roman early christian and germanic influences to create a distinctive style it marked the carolingian renaissance focusing on reviving classical roman artistic traditions while incorporating local germanic elements key features included illuminated manuscripts like the aachen gospels religious iconography intricate metalwork and architecture notable works include the charlemagne s palace chapel at aachen carolingian art emphasized christian themes with elaborate depictions of saints biblical scenes and classical motifs laying the foundation for later medieval art in western europe ottonian art is a style in pre romanesque german art covering also some works from the low countries northern italy and eastern france it was named by the art historian hubert janitschek after the ottonian dynasty which ruled germany and northern italy between 919 and 1024 under the kings henry i otto i otto ii otto iii and henry ii 130 with ottonian architecture it is a key component of the ottonian renaissance circa 951 1024 however the style neither began nor ended to neatly coincide with the rule of the dynasty it emerged some decades into their rule and persisted past the ottonian emperors into the reigns of the early salian dynasty which lacks an artistic style label of its own 131 in the traditional scheme of art history ottonian art follows carolingian art and precedes romanesque art though the transitions at both ends of the period are gradual rather than sudden like the former and unlike the latter it was very largely a style restricted to a few of the small cities of the period to important monasteries as well as to the court circles of the emperor and his leading vassals after the decline of the 9th century carolingian empire the holy roman empire was re established under the saxon ottonian dynasty from this emerged a renewed faith in the idea of empire and a reformed church creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervour in this atmosphere masterpieces were created that fused the traditions from which ottonian artists derived their inspiration models of late antique carolingian and byzantine origin surviving ottonian art is very largely religious in the form of illuminated manuscripts and metalwork and was produced in a small number of centres for a narrow range of patrons in the circle of the imperial court as well as for important figures in the church however much of it was designed for display to a wider public especially to pilgrims 132 the style is generally grand and heavy sometimes to excess and initially less sophisticated than the carolingian equivalents with less direct influence from byzantine art and less understanding of its classical models but around 1000 a striking intensity and expressiveness emerge in many works as a solemn monumentality is combined with a vibrant inwardness an unworldly visionary quality with sharp attention to actuality surface patterns of flowing lines and rich bright colours with passionate emotionalism 133 romanesque edit main article romanesque art the romanesque the first pan european style to emerge after the roman empire spanned the mid tenth century to the thirteenth the period saw a resurgence of monumental stone structures with complex structural programmes romanesque churches are characterized by rigid articulation and geometric clarity incorporated into a unified volumetric whole the architecture is austere but enlivened by decorative sculpting of capitals and portals as well as frescoed interiors geometric and foliate patterning gives way to increasingly three dimensional figurative sculpture st michael s church hildesheim germany 1001 1030 is seen by some as a proto romanesque church 134 need quotation to verify from the mid eleventh to the early thirteenth centuries romanesque paintings were two dimensional defined by bold linear outlines and geometry particularly in the handling of drapery painters emphasised symmetry and frontality virtually all western churches were painted but probably only a few wall painters were monks instead itinerant artists carried out most of this work basic blocking out was done on wet plaster with earth colours a limited palette dominated by white red yellow ochres and azure was employed for maximum visual effect with dense colouring forming a backdrop of bands a practice that originated in late classical art as an attempt to distinguish earth and sky during the later eleventh and twelfth centuries the great age of western monasticism europe experienced unprecedented economic social and political change leading to burgeoning wealth among landowners including monasteries there was increasing demand for books and economic wealth encouraged the production of richly illuminated manuscripts one of the outstanding artefacts of the age is the 70 m long bayeux tapestry 135 136 137 it depicts the events leading up to the norman conquest of england with protagonists william duke of normandy and harold earl of wessex later king of england and culminating in the battle of hastings of 1066 it is thought to date from the 11th century it tells the story from the point of view of the conquering normans but is now agreed to have been made in england most likely by women although the designer is unknown it is housed in france holy face 904 1018 wood with polychromy height 2 9 m sansepolcro cathedral sansepolcro italy 138 speyer cathedral speyer germany 1030 1106 139 maria laach abbey rhineland palatinate germany 1093 1230 140 head of pope alexander 1145 wood silver gilt bronze gems pearls and champlevé enamel height c 45 cm art history museum brussels belgium 141 the stoning of saint stephen 1160s fresco height 1 3 m saint john abbey val müstair canton of grisons switzerland 142 gothic edit main article gothic art gothic art developed in northern france out of romanesque in the 12th century ad and led by the concurrent development of gothic architecture it spread to all of western europe and much of southern and central europe never quite effacing more classical styles in italy in the late 14th century the sophisticated court style of international gothic developed which continued to evolve until the late 15th century brick gothic was a specific style of gothic architecture common in northeast and central europe especially in the regions in and around the baltic sea which do not have resources of standing rock the buildings are essentially built using bricks the imposing gothic cathedrals with their sculptural programmes and stained glass windows epitomize the gothic style 143 it differs from romanesque through its rib shaped vaults and the use of ogives instead of the thick romanesque walls gothic buildings are thin and tall spiral stairs in towers are specific to gothic architecture 144 gothic painting much of it executed in tempera and later oils on panel as well as fresco and with an increasingly broad palette of secondary colours is generally seen as more naturalistic than romanesque the humanity of religious narrative was highlighted and the emotional state of the characters individualized 145 the increased urbanity of the medieval economy and the rise of the clerical and lay patron saw a change in the nature of the art market which can be seen in developments in gothic manuscript illumination workshops employed specialists for different elements of the page such as figures or marginal vine motifs 146 north transept windows c 1230 1235 stained glass diameter rose window 10 2 m chartres cathedral chartres france 147 the sainte chapelle paris 1243 1248 by pierre de montreuil 148 ekkehard and uta attributed to the master of namburg 1245 1260 limestone and polychromy height c 1 9 m naumburg cathedral naumburg germany 149 arrest of christ and annunciation of the virgin by jean pucelle 1324 1328 grisaille and temprea on vellum 8 9 x 12 4 cm metropolitan museum of art new york city 1...
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