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es were converted to arian christianity or nicene christianity 59 clovis i king of the franks was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to the mainstream church rather than arianism allying himself with the papacy other tribes such as the visigoths later abandoned arianism in favour of the established church 59 middle ages gregory the great c 540 604 in a painting by carlo saraceni c 1610 rome after the fall of the western roman empire the pope served as a source of authority and continuity pope gregory i c 540 604 administered the church with strict reform from an ancient senatorial family gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient roman rule theologically he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles potent relics demons angels ghosts and the approaching end of the world 60 gregory s successors were largely dominated by the exarch of ravenna the byzantine emperor s representative in the italian peninsula these humiliations the weakening of the byzantine empire in the face of the muslim conquests and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the lombards made pope stephen ii turn from emperor constantine v he appealed to the franks to protect his lands pepin the short subdued the lombards and donated italian land to the papacy when pope leo iii crowned charlemagne 800 as emperor he established the precedent that in western europe no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope 60 the low point of the papacy was 867 1049 61 this period includes the saeculum obscurum the crescentii era and the tusculan papacy the papacy came under the control of vying political factions popes were variously imprisoned starved killed and deposed by force the counts of tusculum made and unmade popes for fifty years pope john xii the great grandson of one such count held orgies of debauchery in the lateran palace emperor otto i had john accused in an ecclesiastical court which deposed him and elected a layman as pope leo viii john mutilated the imperial representatives in rome and had himself reinstated as pope conflict between the emperor and the papacy continued and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly 62 in 1049 leo ix travelled to the major cities of europe to deal with the church s moral problems firsthand notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage with his long journey he restored the prestige of the papacy in northern europe 62 from the 7th century it became common for european monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy 63 64 this practice had become common in part because the prelates and secular rulers were also often participants in public life 65 to combat this and other practices that had been seen as corrupting between the years 900 and 1050 centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform the most important being the abbey of cluny which spread its ideals throughout europe 64 this reform movement gained strength with the election of pope gregory vii in 1073 who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the gregorian reform in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline including clerical celibacy 55 in 1122 this conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as the holy roman emperor henry iv and king henry i of england known as the investiture controversy was resolved by the concordat of worms in which pope callixtus ii decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders and temporal rulers by lay investiture 63 soon after pope alexander iii began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law 60 starting at the beginning of the 7th century islamic conquests had succeeded in controlling much of the southern mediterranean this was perceived as a threat to christianity 66 in 1095 the byzantine emperor alexios i komnenos asked for military aid from pope urban ii in the ongoing byzantine seljuq wars 67 urban at the council of clermont called the first crusade to assist the byzantine empire to regain the old christian territories especially jerusalem 68 east west schism to reformation 1054 1517 main article east west schism a map of the mediterranean states in 1400 the east west schism began in 1054 and continues while the western schism lasted from 1378 to 1417 with the east west schism the eastern orthodox church and the catholic church split definitively in 1054 this fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed popes had galled the byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the franks crowning a rival roman emperor appropriating the exarchate of ravenna and driving into greek italy 62 in the middle ages popes struggled with monarchs over power 10 from 1309 to 1377 the pope resided not in rome but in avignon the avignon papacy was notorious for greed and corruption 69 during this period the pope was effectively an ally of the kingdom of france alienating france s enemies such as the kingdom of england 70 the pope was understood to have the power to draw on the treasury of merit built up by the saints and by christ so that he could grant indulgences reducing one s time in purgatory the concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition confession and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution the popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences 69 popes also contended with the cardinals who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of catholic ecumenical councils over the pope s conciliarism holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a general council not with the pope its foundations were laid early in the 13th century and it culminated in the 15th century with jean gerson as its leading spokesman the failure of conciliarism to gain broad acceptance after the 15th century is taken as a factor in the protestant reformation 71 various antipopes challenged papal authority especially during the western schism 1378 1417 it came to a close when the council of constance at the high point of concilliarism decided among the papal claimants the eastern church continued to decline with the eastern roman byzantine empire undercutting constantinople s claim to equality with rome twice an eastern emperor tried to force the eastern church to reunify with the west first in the second council of lyon 1272 1274 and secondly in the council of florence 1431 1449 papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification which failed in any event in the 15th century the ottoman empire captured constantinople and ended the byzantine empire 72 reformation to present 1517 to today as part of the catholic reformation pope paul iii 1534 1549 initiated the council of trent 1545 1563 which established the triumph of the papacy over those who sought to reconcile with protestants or oppose papal claims protestant reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and characterized the pope as the antichrist 73 74 75 76 popes instituted a catholic reformation 10 1560 1648 which addressed the challenges of the protestant reformation and instituted internal reforms pope paul iii initiated the council of trent 1545 1563 whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with protestants and opposed papal claims 77 gradually forced to give up secular power to the increasingly assertive european nation states the popes focused on spiritual issues 10 in 1870 the first vatican council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for the most solemn occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a definition of faith or morals 10 later the same year victor emmanuel ii of italy seized rome from the pope s control and substantially completed the unification of italy 10 in 1929 the lateran treaty between the kingdom of italy and the holy see established vatican city as an independent city state guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule 10 in 1950 pope pius xii defined the assumption of mary as dogma the only time a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared the primacy of st peter the controversial doctrinal basis of the pope s authority continues to divide the eastern and western churches and to separate protestants from rome early christian mentions see also history of papal primacy church fathers the writings of several early church fathers contain references to the authority and unique position held by the bishops of rome providing valuable insight into the recognition and significance of the papacy during the early christian era 78 these sources attest to the acknowledgement of the bishop of rome as an influential figure within the church with some emphasizing the importance of adherence to rome s teachings and decisions such references served to establish the concept of papal primacy and have continued to inform catholic theology and practice 79 80 in his letters cyprian of carthage c 210 258 ad recognized the bishop of rome as the successor of st peter in his letter 55 c 251 ad which is addressed to pope cornelius 81 82 and affirmed his unique authority in the early christian church 83 cornelius the bishop of rome was made bishop by the choice of god and of his christ by the favorable witness of almost all the clergy by the votes of the people who were present and by the assembly of ancient priests and good men and he was made bishop when no one else had been made bishop before him when the position of fabian that is to say the position of peter and the office of the bishop s chair was vacant but the position once has been filled by the will of god and that appointment has been ratified by the consent of us all if anyone wants to be made bishop after that it has to be done outside the church if a man does not uphold the unity of the church s unity it is not possible for him to have the church s ordination cyprian of carthage letter 55 8 4 irenaeus of lyons c 130 c 202 ad a prominent christian theologian of the second century provided a list of early popes in his work against heresies iii the list covers the period from saint peter to pope eleutherius who served from 174 to 189 ad 84 85 the blessed apostles peter and paul then having founded and built up the church in rome committed into the hands of linus the office of the episcopate of this linus paul makes mention in the epistles to timothy to him succeeded anacletus and after him in the third place from the apostles clement was allotted the bishopric to this clement there succeeded eviristus alexander followed evaristus then sixth from the apostles sixtus was appointed after him telephorus who was gloriously martyred then hyginus after him pius then after him anicetus soter having succeeded anicetus eleutherius does now in the twelfth place from the apostles hold the inheritance of the episcopate irenaeus of lyons against heresies iii chapter 3 2 ignatius of antioch died c 108 140 ad wrote in his epistle to the romans that the church in rome is the church that presides over love 86 87 the church which is beloved and enlightened by the will of him that wills all things which are according to the love of jesus christ our god which also presides in the place of the region of the romans worthy of god worthy of honour worthy of the highest happiness worthy of praise worthy of obtaining her every desire worthy of being deemed holy and which presides over love is named from christ and from the father which i also salute in the name of jesus christ the son of the father to those who are united both according to the flesh and spirit to every one of his commandments ignatius of antioch epistle to romans augustine of hippo 354 430 in his letter 53 wrote a list of 38 popes from saint peter to siricius the order of this list differs from the lists of irenaeus and the annuario pontificio augustine s list claims that linus was succeeded by clement and clement was succeeded by anacletus as in the list of eusebius while the other two lists switch the positions of clement and anacletus 88 for if the lineal succession of bishops is to be taken into account with how much more certainty and benefit to the church do we reckon back till we reach peter himself to whom as bearing in a figure the whole church the lord said upon this rock will i build my church and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it matthew 16 18 the successor of peter was linus and his successors in unbroken continuity were these clement anacletus evaristus augustine of hippo letter 53 paragraph 2 other early christian mentions eusebius c 260 265 339 mentions linus as saint peter s successor and clement as the third bishop of rome in his book church history as recorded by eusebius clement worked with saint paul as his co laborer 89 as to the rest of his followers paul testifies that crescens was sent to gaul but linus whom he mentions in the second epistle to timothy as his companion at rome was peter s successor in the episcopate of the church there as has already been shown clement also who was appointed third bishop of the church at rome was as paul testifies his co laborer and fellow soldier eusebius of caesarea church history book iii chapter 4 9 10 tertullian c 155 c 220 ad wrote in his work the prescription against heretics about the authority of the church in rome in this work tertullian said that the church in rome has the authority of the apostles because of its apostolic foundation 90 since moreover you are close upon italy you have rome from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority of apostles themselves how happy is its church on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood where peter endures a passion like his lord s where paul wins his crown in a death like john s where the apostle john was first plunged unhurt into boiling oil and thence remitted to his island exile tertullian the prescription against heretics chapter 32 according to the same book clement of rome was ordained by saint peter as the bishop of rome for this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers as the church of smyrna which records that polycarp was placed therein by john as also the church of rome which makes clement to have been ordained in like manner by peter tertullian prescription against heretics chapter 32 optatus the bishop of milevis in numidia today s algeria and a contemporary of the donatist schism presents a detailed analysis of the origins beliefs and practices of the donatists as well as the ...
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