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transfer temporary file copy protection digital rights management volume computing boot sector master boot record volume boot record guid partition table disk array disk image disk mirroring disk aggregation disk partitioning memory segmentation locality of reference logical disk storage virtualization virtual memory memory mapped file software entropy software rot in memory database in memory processing persistence computer science persistent data structure raid non raid drive architectures memory paging bank switching grid computing cloud computing cloud storage fog computing edge computing dew computing amdahl s law moore s law kryder s law volatile ram hardware cache cpu cache scratchpad memory dram edram sdram sgram ddr gddr lpddr qdrsram edo dram xdr dram rdram hbm sram 1t sram reram qram content addressable memory cam computational ram vram dual ported ram video ram dual ported dram historical williams kilburn tube 1946 1947 delay line memory 1947 mellon optical memory 1951 selectron tube 1952 dekatron t ram 2009 z ram 2002 2010 non volatile rom diode matrix mrom prom eprom eeprom rom cartridge solid state storage sss flash memory is used in solid state drive ssd solid state hybrid drive sshd usb flash drive ibm flashsystem flash core module memory card memory stick compactflash pc card multimediacard sd card sim card smartmedia universal flash storage sxs microp2 xqd card programmable metallization cell nvram memistor memristor pcm 3d xpoint mram electrochemical ram ecram nano ram cbram early stage nvram feram reram fefet memory analog recording phonograph cylinder phonograph record quadruplex videotape vision electronic recording apparatus magnetic recording magnetic storage magnetic tape magnetic tape data storage tape drive tape library digital data storage dds videotape cassette tape linear tape open betamax 8 mm video format dv minidv micromv u matic vhs s vhs vhs c d vhs hard disk drive optical 3d optical data storage optical disc laserdisc compact disc digital audio cdda cd cd video cd r cd rw video cd super video cd mini cd nintendo optical discs cd rom hyper cd rom dvd dvd r dvd video dvd card dvd ram minidvd hd dvd blu ray ultra hd blu ray holographic versatile disc worm in development cbram racetrack memory nram millipede memory ecram patterned media holographic data storage electronic quantum holography 5d optical data storage dna digital data storage universal memory time crystal quantum memory ultraram historical paper data storage 1725 punched card 1725 punched tape 1725 plugboard drum memory 1932 magnetic core memory 1949 plated wire memory 1957 core rope memory 1960s thin film memory 1962 disk pack 1962 twistor memory 1968 bubble memory 1970 floppy disk 1971 v t e a hard disk drive hdd hard disk hard drive or fixed disk a is an electro mechanical computer data storage device that stores and retrieves digital data using magnetic storage with one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic material the platters are paired with magnetic heads usually arranged on a moving actuator arm which read and write data to the platter surfaces 1 data is accessed in a random access manner meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored and retrieved in any order hdds are a type of non volatile storage retaining stored data when powered off 2 3 4 modern hdds are typically in the form of a small rectangular box possibly in a disk enclosure for portability modern disks do not have removable media in contrast to the disk drives common in the 1960s and 1970s which often used removable disk packs b ibm introduced the first disk drive the 350 for the 305 ramac in 1956 5 and disks were the dominant secondary storage device for general purpose computers beginning in the early 1960s hdds maintained this position into the modern era of servers and personal computers though personal computing devices produced in large volume like mobile phones and tablets rely on flash memory storage devices more than 224 companies have produced hdds historically though after extensive industry consolidation most units are manufactured by seagate toshiba and western digital hdds dominate the volume of storage produced exabytes per year for servers though production is growing slowly by exabytes shipped 6 sales revenues and unit shipments are declining because solid state drives ssds have higher data transfer rates higher areal storage density somewhat better reliability 7 8 and much lower latency and access times 9 10 11 12 the revenues for ssds most of which use nand flash memory slightly exceeded those for hdds in 2018 13 flash storage products had more than twice the revenue of hard disk drives as of 2017 update 14 though ssds have four to nine times higher cost per bit 15 16 they are replacing hdds in applications where speed power consumption small size high capacity and durability are important 11 12 as of 2017 update the cost per bit of ssds was falling and the price premium over hdds had narrowed 16 the primary characteristics of an hdd are its capacity and performance capacity is specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of 1000 a 1 terabyte tb drive has a capacity of 1 000 gigabytes where 1 gigabyte 1 000 megabytes 1 000 000 kilobytes 1 million 1 000 000 000 bytes 1 billion typically some of an hdd s capacity is unavailable to the user because it is used by the file system and the computer operating system and possibly inbuilt redundancy for error correction and recovery there can be confusion regarding storage capacity since capacities are stated in decimal gigabytes powers of 1000 by hdd manufacturers whereas the most commonly used operating systems report capacities in powers of 1024 which results in a smaller number than advertised performance is specified as the time required to move the heads to a track or cylinder average access time the time it takes for the desired sector to move under the head average latency which is a function of the physical rotational speed in revolutions per minute and finally the speed at which the data is transmitted data rate the two most common form factors for modern hdds are 3 5 inch for desktop computers and 2 5 inch primarily for laptops and servers hdds are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as sata serial ata usb sas serial attached scsi or pata parallel ata cables history edit main article history of hard disk drives hard disk drive a partially disassembled ibm 350 hard disk drive ramac date invented december 24 1954 71 years ago 1954 12 24 c invented by ibm team led by rey johnson improvement of hdd characteristics over time parameter started with 1957 improved to improvement capacity formatted 3 75 megabytes 18 36 terabytes as of 2025 update 19 20 21 9 6 million to one d physical volume 68 cubic feet 1 9 m 3 e 5 2 1 cubic inches 34 cm 3 22 f 56 000 to one g weight 2 000 pounds 910 kg 5 2 2 ounces 62 g 22 15 000 to one h average access time approx 600 milliseconds 5 2 5 ms to 10 ms rw ram dependent about 200 to one i price us 9 200 per megabyte 1961 23 us 97 500 in 2022 us 14 4 per terabyte by end of 2022 24 6 8 billion to one j data density 2 000 bits per square inch 25 1 4 terabits per square inch in 2023 26 700 million to one k average lifespan c 2000 hrs mtbf citation needed c 2 500 000 hrs 285 years mtbf 27 1250 to one l 1950s 1960s edit the first production ibm hard disk drive the 350 disk storage shipped in 1957 as a component of the ibm 305 ramac system it was approximately the size of two large refrigerators and stored five million six bit characters 3 75 megabytes 18 on a stack of 52 disks 100 surfaces used 28 the 350 had a single arm with two read write heads one facing up and the other down that moved both horizontally between a pair of adjacent platters and vertically from one pair of platters to a second set 29 30 31 variants of the ibm 350 were the ibm 355 ibm 7300 and ibm 1405 in 1961 ibm announced and in 1962 shipped the ibm 1301 disk storage unit 32 which superseded the ibm 350 and similar drives the 1301 consisted of one for model 1 or two for model 2 modules each containing 25 platters each platter about 1 8 inch 3 2 mm thick and 24 inches 610 mm in diameter 33 while the earlier ibm disk drives used only two read write heads per arm the 1301 used an array of 48 m heads comb each array moving horizontally as a single unit one head per surface used cylinder mode read write operations were supported and the heads flew about 250 micro inches about 6 μm above the platter surface motion of the head array depended upon a binary adder system of hydraulic actuators which assured repeatable positioning the 1301 cabinet was about the size of three large refrigerators placed side by side storing the equivalent of about 21 million eight bit bytes per module access time was about a quarter of a second also in 1962 ibm introduced the model 1311 disk drive which was about the size of a washing machine and stored two million characters on a removable disk pack users could buy additional packs and interchange them as needed much like reels of magnetic tape later models of removable pack drives from ibm and others became the norm in most computer installations and reached capacities of 300 megabytes by the early 1980s non removable hdds were called fixed disk drives in 1963 ibm introduced the 1302 34 with twice the track capacity and twice as many tracks per cylinder as the 1301 the 1302 had one for model 1 or two for model 2 modules each containing a separate comb for the first 250 tracks and the last 250 tracks some high performance hdds were manufactured with one head per track e g the burroughs b 475 in 1964 and the ibm 2305 in 1970 so that no time was lost physically moving the heads to a track and the only latency was the time for the desired block of data to rotate into position under the head 35 known as fixed head or head per track disk drives they were very expensive and are no longer in production 36 1970s edit in 1973 ibm introduced a new type of hdd code named winchester its primary distinguishing feature was that the disk heads were not withdrawn completely from the stack of disk platters when the drive was powered down instead the heads were allowed to land on a special area of the disk surface upon spin down taking off again when the disk was later powered on this greatly reduced the cost of the head actuator mechanism but precluded removing just the disks from the drive as was done with the disk packs of the day instead the first models of winchester technology drives featured a removable disk module which included both the disk pack and the head assembly leaving the actuator motor in the drive upon removal later winchester drives abandoned the removable media concept and returned to non removable platters in 1974 ibm introduced the swinging arm actuator made feasible because the winchester recording heads function well when skewed to the recorded tracks the simple design of the ibm gv gulliver drive 37 invented at ibm s uk hursley labs became ibm s most licensed electro mechanical invention 38 of all time the actuator and filtration system being adopted in the 1980s eventually for all hdds and still universal over 50 years and 10 billion arms later like the first removable pack drive the first winchester drives used platters 14 inches 360 mm in diameter in 1978 ibm introduced a swing arm drive the ibm 0680 piccolo with eight inch platters exploring the possibility that smaller platters might offer advantages other eight inch drives followed then 5 1 4 in 130 mm drives sized to replace the contemporary floppy disk drives the latter were primarily intended for the then fledgling personal computer pc market 1980s 1990s edit over time as recording densities were greatly increased further reductions in disk diameter to 3 5 and 2 5 were found to be optimum powerful rare earth magnet materials became affordable during this period and were complementary to the swing arm actuator design to make possible the compact form factors of modern hdds by 1986 10 mb was the most commonly used hard disk size and most new corporate computers had hard drives most in the industry expected that 20 mb would soon become the new standard size 39 by the late 1980s their cost had been reduced to the point where they were standard on all but the cheapest computers most hdds in the early 1980s were sold to pc end users as an external add on subsystem the subsystem was not sold under the drive manufacturer s name but under the subsystem manufacturer s name such as corvus systems and tallgrass technologies or under the pc system manufacturer s name such as the apple profile the ibm pc xt in 1983 included an internal 10 mb hdd by 1985 internal hdds outsold external drives for personal computers when ibm began selling the xt without a hard disk hard disk manufacturers that had only sold to oem customers began selling to resellers which bundled xts with the non ibm hard disks hardcards became popular upgrades for existing computers 39 external hdds remained popular for much longer on the apple macintosh many macintosh computers made between 1986 and 1998 featured a scsi port on the back making external expansion simple older compact macintosh computers did not have user accessible hard drive bays indeed the macintosh 128k macintosh 512k and macintosh plus did not feature a hard drive bay at all so on those models external scsi disks were the only reasonable option for expanding upon any internal storage 21st century edit hdd improvements have been driven by increasing areal density listed in the table above applications expanded through the 2000s from the mainframe computers of the late 1950s to most mass storage applications including computers and consumer applications such as storage of entertainment content in the 2000s and 2010s nand began supplanting hdds in applications requiring portability or high performance in 2018 the largest hard drive had a capacity of 15 tb while the largest capacity ssd had a capacity of 100 tb 40 in 2018 hdds were forecast to reach 100 tb capacities around 2025 41 but as of 2019 update the expected pace of improvement was pared back to 50 tb by 2026 42 smaller form factors 1 8 inches and below were discontinued around 2010 the cost of solid state storage nand represented by moore s law is improving faster than hdds nand has a higher price elasticity of demand than hdds and this drives market growth 43 during the late 2000s and 2010s the product life cycle of hdds entered a mature phase and slowing sales may indicate the onset of the declining phase 44 during the 2020s nand adoption rate has significantly accelerated in no small part due to the rising use of the technology in consumer electronics while its performance has been improving faster than hdd performance the 2011 thailand floods damaged the manufacturing plants and impacted hard disk drive cost adversely between 2011 and 2013 45 in 2019 western digita...
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