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atic relations and political accords with many independent states according to catholic tradition the apostolic see of rome was founded by saint peter and saint paul in the first century the papacy is one of the longest enduring institutions in the world and has been a prominent force in human history 9 in ancient times the popes helped spread christianity and intervened to find resolutions in various doctrinal disputes 10 in the middle ages they played a role of secular importance in western europe often acting as arbitrators between christian monarchs 11 12 d in addition to the expansion of christian faith and doctrine modern popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue charitable work and the defence of human rights 13 over time the papacy accrued broad secular and political influence eventually rivalling those of territorial rulers in recent centuries the temporal authority of the papacy has declined and the office is now largely focused on religious matters 10 by contrast papal claims of spiritual authority have been increasingly firmly expressed over time culminating in 1870 with the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for rare occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra literally from the chair of saint peter to issue a formal definition of faith or morals 10 the pope is considered one of the world s most powerful people due to the extensive diplomatic cultural and spiritual influence of his position on both 1 4 billion catholics 14 and those outside the catholic faith 15 16 17 18 and because he heads the world s largest non government provider of education and health care 19 with a vast network of charities history main article history of the papacy title and etymology main article pope title the word pope derives from ancient greek πάππας páppas father in the early centuries of christianity this title was applied especially in the east to all bishops 20 and other senior clergy and later became reserved in the west to the bishop of rome during the reign of pope leo i 440 461 21 a reservation made official only in the 11th century 22 23 24 25 26 the earliest record of the use of the title of pope was in regard to the by then deceased patriarch of alexandria heraclas 232 248 27 the earliest recorded use of the title pope in english dates to the mid 10th century when it was used in reference to the 7th century roman pope vitalian in an old english translation of bede s historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum 28 position within the church the catholic church teaches that the pastoral office the office of shepherding the church that was held by the apostles as a group or college with saint peter as their head is now held by their successors the bishops with the bishop of rome the pope as their head 29 this gives rise to another title by which the pope is known supreme pontiff the catholic church teaches that jesus personally appointed peter as the visible head of the church e and the catholic church s dogmatic constitution lumen gentium makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops presenting the latter as the successors of the former with the pope as successor of peter in that he is head of the bishops as peter was head of the apostles 31 some historians argue against the notion that peter was the first bishop of rome noting that the episcopal see in rome can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century 32 the writings of irenaeus a church father who wrote around 180 ad reflect a belief that peter founded and organized the church at rome 33 moreover irenaeus was not the first to write of peter s presence in the early roman church the church of rome wrote in a letter to the corinthians which is traditionally attributed to clement of rome c 96 34 about the persecution of christians in rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the corinthians its heroes first the greatest and most just columns the good apostles peter and paul 35 ignatius of antioch wrote shortly after clement in his letter from the city of smyrna to the romans he said he would not command them as peter and paul did 36 given this and other evidence such as emperor constantine s erection of the old st peter s basilica on the location of saint peter s tomb as held and given to him by rome s christian community many scholars agree that peter was martyred in rome under nero although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in palestine 37 38 39 although open to historical debate first century christian communities may have had a group of presbyter bishops functioning as guides of their local churches gradually episcopal sees were established in metropolitan areas 40 antioch may have developed such a structure before rome 40 in rome there were over time at various junctures rival claimants to be the rightful bishop though again irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of st peter up to his contemporary pope victor i and listed them 41 some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century in their view linus cletus and clement were possibly prominent presbyter bishops but not necessarily monarchical bishops 32 documents of the 1st century and early second century indicate that the bishop of rome had some kind of pre eminence and prominence in the church as a whole as even a letter from the bishop or patriarch of antioch acknowledged the bishop of rome as a first among equals 42 though the detail of what this meant is unclear f early christianity c 30 325 sources suggest that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably 46 with the consensus among scholars being that by the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose duties of office overlapped or were indistinguishable from one another 47 some who say that there was probably no single monarchical bishop in rome before the middle of the 2nd century and likely later 48 in the early christian era rome and a few other cities had claims on the leadership of worldwide church james the just known as the brother of the lord served as head of the jerusalem church which is still honoured as the mother church in orthodox tradition alexandria had been a center of jewish learning and became a center of christian learning rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom paul the apostle addressed in his epistle to the romans and according to tradition paul was martyred there 49 during the 1st century of the church c 30 130 the roman capital became recognized as a christian center of exceptional importance the church there at the end of the century wrote an epistle to the church in corinth intervening in a major dispute and apologizing for not having taken action earlier 50 there are a few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the roman see outside of rome in the ravenna document of 13 october 2007 theologians chosen by the catholic and the eastern orthodox churches stated 51 both sides agree that this canonical taxis was recognised by all in the era of the undivided church further they agree that rome as the church that presides in love according to the phrase of st ignatius of antioch to the romans prologue occupied the first place in the taxis and that the bishop of rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs they disagree however on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of rome as protos a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium ravenna document 41 in ad 195 pope victor i in what is seen as an exercise of roman authority over other churches excommunicated the quartodecimans for observing easter on the 14th of nisan the date of the jewish passover a tradition handed down by john the evangelist see easter controversy celebration of easter on a sunday as insisted on by the pope is the system that has prevailed see computus nicaea to east west schism 325 1054 see also papacy in late antiquity the edict of milan in 313 granted freedom to all religions in the roman empire 52 beginning the peace of the church in 325 the first council of nicaea condemned arianism declaring trinitarianism dogmatic and in its sixth canon recognized the special role of the sees of rome alexandria and antioch 53 great defenders of trinitarian faith included the popes especially liberius who was exiled to berea by constantius ii for his trinitarian faith 54 damasus i and several other bishops 55 in 380 the edict of thessalonica declared nicene christianity to be the state religion of the empire with the name catholic christians reserved for those who accepted that faith 56 57 while the civil power in the eastern roman empire controlled the church and the patriarch of constantinople the capital wielded much power 58 in the western roman empire the bishops of rome were able to consolidate the influence and power they already possessed 58 after the fall of the western roman empire barbarian tribes were converted to arian christianity or nicene christianity 59 clovis i king of the franks was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to the mainstream church rather than arianism allying himself with the papacy other tribes such as the visigoths later abandoned arianism in favour of the established church 59 middle ages gregory the great c 540 604 in a painting by carlo saraceni c 1610 rome after the fall of the western roman empire the pope served as a source of authority and continuity pope gregory i c 540 604 administered the church with strict reform from an ancient senatorial family gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient roman rule theologically he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles potent relics demons angels ghosts and the approaching end of the world 60 gregory s successors were largely dominated by the exarch of ravenna the byzantine emperor s representative in the italian peninsula these humiliations the weakening of the byzantine empire in the face of the muslim conquests and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the lombards made pope stephen ii turn from emperor constantine v he appealed to the franks to protect his lands pepin the short subdued the lombards and donated italian land to the papacy when pope leo iii crowned charlemagne 800 as emperor he established the precedent that in western europe no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope 60 the low point of the papacy was 867 1049 61 this period includes the saeculum obscurum the crescentii era and the tusculan papacy the papacy came under the control of vying political factions popes were variously imprisoned starved killed and deposed by force the counts of tusculum made and unmade popes for fifty years pope john xii the great grandson of one such count held orgies of debauchery in the lateran palace emperor otto i had john accused in an ecclesiastical court which deposed him and elected a layman as pope leo viii john mutilated the imperial representatives in rome and had himself reinstated as pope conflict between the emperor and the papacy continued and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly 62 in 1049 leo ix travelled to the major cities of europe to deal with the church s moral problems firsthand notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage with his long journey he restored the prestige of the papacy in northern europe 62 from the 7th century it became common for european monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy 63 64 this practice had become common in part because the prelates and secular rulers were also often participants in public life 65 to combat this and other practices that had been seen as corrupting between the years 900 and 1050 centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform the most important being the abbey of cluny which spread its ideals throughout europe 64 this reform movement gained strength with the election of pope gregory vii in 1073 who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the gregorian reform in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline including clerical celibacy 55 in 1122 this conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as the holy roman emperor henry iv and king henry i of england known as the investiture controversy was resolved by the concordat of worms in which pope callixtus ii decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders and temporal rulers by lay investiture 63 soon after pope alexander iii began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law 60 starting at the beginning of the 7th century islamic conquests had succeeded in controlling much of the southern mediterranean this was perceived as a threat to christianity 66 in 1095 the byzantine emperor alexios i komnenos asked for military aid from pope urban ii in the ongoing byzantine seljuq wars 67 urban at the council of clermont called the first crusade to assist the byzantine empire to regain the old christian territories especially jerusalem 68 east west schism to reformation 1054 1517 main article east west schism a map of the mediterranean states in 1400 the east west schism began in 1054 and continues while the western schism lasted from 1378 to 1417 with the east west schism the eastern orthodox church and the catholic church split definitively in 1054 this fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed popes had galled the byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the franks crowning a rival roman emperor appropriating the exarchate of ravenna and driving into greek italy 62 in the middle ages popes struggled with monarchs over power 10 from 1309 to 1377 the pope resided not in rome but in avignon the avignon papacy was notorious for greed and corruption 69 during this period the pope was effectively an ally of the kingdom of france alienating france s enemies such as the kingdom of england 70 the pope was understood to have the power to draw on the treasury of merit built up by the saints and by christ so that he could grant indulgences reducing one s time in purgatory the concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition confession and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution the popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences 69 popes also contended with the cardinals who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of catholic ec...
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