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mation cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia cauldron like volcanic feature formed by the emptying of a magma chamber for other uses see caldera disambiguation mount mazama s eruption timeline an example of caldera formation a caldera k ɔː l ˈ d ɛr ə k æ l 1 kawl derr ə kal is a large cauldron like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption the ejection of large volumes of magma in a short time can upset the integrity of a magma chamber s structure by in effect removing much of the chamber s filling material the walls and ceiling of a chamber may then not be able to support its own weight and any substrate or rock resting above the ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber leaving a large depression at the surface that may have a diameter of dozens of kilometers 2 although sometimes described as a crater the feature is actually a type of sinkhole as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century the formation of a caldera is a rare event occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years 3 only nine caldera forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2022 3 with the caldera collapses at kīlauea hawaii in 2018 and hunga tonga hunga haʻapai in 2022 being the most recent 4 5 volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as caldera volcanoes 6 etymology edit the term caldera comes from spanish caldera and latin caldaria meaning cooking pot 7 in some texts the english term cauldron is also used 8 though in more recent work the term cauldron refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded to expose the beds under the caldera floor 7 the term caldera was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the german geologist leopold von buch when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the canary islands note 1 where he first saw the las cañadas caldera on tenerife with mount teide dominating the landscape and then the caldera de taburiente on la palma 9 7 caldera formation edit animation of an analogue experiment showing the origin of a mock volcanic caldera in box filled with flour landsat image of lake toba on the island of sumatra indonesia 100 km 62 mi long and 30 km 19 mi wide one of the world s largest calderas a resurgent dome formed the island of samosir topographic map of cagar alam rawa danau caldera in indonesia a collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano sometimes as the result of a large explosive volcanic eruption see tambora 10 in 1815 but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano see piton de la fournaise in 2007 11 or in a connected fissure system see bárðarbunga in 2014 2015 if enough magma is ejected the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it a roughly circular fracture the ring fault develops around the edge of the chamber ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dikes 12 86 89 secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture 13 as the magma chamber empties the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse the collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions the total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers 7 mineralization in calderas edit some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits metal rich fluids can circulate through the caldera forming hydrothermal ore deposits of metals such as lead silver gold mercury lithium and uranium 14 one of the world s best preserved mineralized calderas is the sturgeon lake caldera in northwestern ontario canada which formed during the neoarchean era 15 about 2 7 billion years ago 16 in the san juan volcanic field ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera 17 types of caldera edit explosive caldera eruptions edit further information explosive eruption explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber whose magma is rich in silica silica rich magma has a high viscosity and therefore does not flow easily like basalt 12 23 26 the magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved gases up to 7 wt for the most silica rich magmas 18 when the magma approaches the surface of the earth the drop in confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma fragmenting the magma to produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot gases 19 the mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column however as the volume of erupted material increases the eruption column is unable to entrain enough air to remain buoyant and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows 20 eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts 12 77 for example when yellowstone caldera last erupted some 650 000 years ago it released about 1 000 km 3 of material as measured in dense rock equivalent dre covering a substantial part of north america in up to two metres of debris 21 eruptions forming even larger calderas are known such as the la garita caldera in the san juan mountains of colorado where the 5 000 cubic kilometres 1 200 cu mi fish canyon tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27 8 million years ago 22 23 the caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff rhyolite and other igneous rocks 24 the caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff also called an ash flow sheet 25 26 if magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the valles caldera lake toba the san juan volcanic field 8 cerro galán 27 yellowstone 28 and many other calderas 8 because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event it can cause catastrophic environmental effects even small caldera forming eruptions such as krakatoa in 1883 29 or mount pinatubo in 1991 30 may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world large calderas may have even greater effects the ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the lake toba eruption in indonesia at some points in geological time rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters the remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the eocene rum complex of scotland 24 the san juan mountains of colorado formed during the oligocene miocene and pliocene epochs or the saint francois mountain range of missouri erupted during the proterozoic eon 31 valles edit valle caldera new mexico main article valles caldera for their 1968 paper 8 that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology 7 r l smith and r a bailey chose the valles caldera as their model although the valles caldera is not unusually large it is relatively young 1 25 million years old and unusually well preserved 32 and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera 7 the ash flow tuffs of the valles caldera such as the bandelier tuff were among the first to be thoroughly characterized 33 toba edit main articles lake toba and toba catastrophe theory about 74 000 years ago this indonesian volcano released about 2 800 cubic kilometres 670 cu mi dense rock equivalent of ejecta this was the largest known eruption during the ongoing quaternary period the last 2 6 million years and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years in the late 1990s anthropologist stanley ambrose 34 proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2 000 20 000 individuals resulting in a population bottleneck more recently lynn jorde and henry harpending proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5 000 10 000 people 35 there is no direct evidence however that either theory is correct and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction even in environmentally sensitive species 36 there is evidence that human habitation continued in india after the eruption 37 satellite photograph of the summit caldera on fernandina island in the galápagos archipelago oblique aerial photo of nemrut caldera van lake eastern turkey non explosive calderas edit sollipulli caldera located in central chile near the border with argentina filled with ice the volcano is in the southern andes mountains within chile s parque nacional villarica 38 some volcanoes such as the large shield volcanoes kīlauea and mauna loa on the island of hawaii form calderas in a different fashion the magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt which is silica poor as a result the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events the resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas for instance the caldera atop fernandina island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres 1 150 ft 39 extraterrestrial calderas edit since the early 1960s it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the solar system through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft volcanism has been discovered on venus mars the moon and io a satellite of jupiter none of these worlds have plate tectonics which contributes approximately 60 of the earth s volcanic activity the other 40 is attributed to hotspot volcanism 40 caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies though the size varies considerably the average caldera diameter on venus is 68 km 42 mi the average caldera diameter on io is close to 40 km 25 mi and the mode is 6 km 3 7 mi tvashtar paterae is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of 290 km 180 mi the average caldera diameter on mars is 48 km 30 mi smaller than venus calderas on earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1 6 80 km 1 50 mi as a maximum 41 the moon edit further information volcanism on the moon the moon has an outer shell of low density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick which formed due to a rapid creation the craters of the moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity but are currently believed to have been formed by meteorites nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the moon formed around 500 million years afterward the moon s mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters also eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust this forms a dome possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form 40 although caldera like structures are rare on the moon they are not completely absent the compton belkovich volcanic complex on the far side of the moon is thought to be a caldera possibly an ash flow caldera 42 mars edit further information volcanism on mars the volcanic activity of mars is concentrated in two major provinces tharsis and elysium each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots the surfaces are dominated by lava flows and all have one or more collapse calderas 40 mars has the tallest volcano in the solar system olympus mons which is more than three times the height of mount everest with a diameter of 520 km 323 miles the summit of the mountain has six nested calderas 43 venus edit further information volcanism on venus because there is no plate tectonics on venus heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere this causes enormous lava flows accounting for 80 of venus surface area many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150 400 km 95 250 mi in diameter and 2 4 km 1 2 2 5 mi high more than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km 37 mi across 40 io edit further information volcanism on io io unusually is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of jupiter and io s orbital resonance with neighboring large moons europa and ganymede which keep its orbit slightly eccentric unlike any of the planets mentioned io is continuously volcanically active for example the nasa voyager 1 and voyager 2 spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing io in 1979 io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across 40 list of volcanic calderas edit see also category calderas africa edit nasa false colour topographical relief image of nabro top and mallahle volcanic calderas centre left cape verde mount fogo fogo eritrea nabro volcano southern red sea region ethiopia erta ale afar region mallahle afar region kenya menengai crater great rift valley nakuru county mount elgon bungoma county and trans nzoia county shared on border with uganda mount longonot great rift valley nakuru county namibia brukkaros mountain ǁkaras region messum crater erongo region tanzania mount meru arusha region ngorongoro crater arusha region uganda mount elgon eastern region shared on border with kenya see europe for calderas in the canary islands and the azores antarctica edit satellite image of deception island by sentinel 2 march 2023 deception island kemp caldera asia edit caldera of mount tambora mount pinatubo philippines china dakantou caldera 大墈头 shanhuyan village taozhu town linhai zhejiang ma anshan caldera 马鞍山 shishan town 石山镇 xiuying hainan yiyang caldera 宜洋 shuangxi town 双溪镇宜洋村 pingnan county fujian indonesia batur bali krakatoa sunda strait lake maninjau sumatra lake toba sumatra mount rinjani lombok mount tondano sulawesi mount tambora sumbawa tengger caldera java japan aira caldera kagoshima prefecture kussharo hokkaido kuttara hokkaido mashū hokkaido aso caldera mount aso kumamoto prefecture kikai caldera kagoshima prefecture towada aomori prefecture tazawa akita prefecture hakone kanagawa prefecture korean peninsula mount halla jeju do south korea heaven lake baekdu mountain north korea changbai mountains ch...
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