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the (287), and (152), #rocket (102), solid (89), #propellant (80), for (48), with (47), rockets (47), are (47), propellants (45), from (38), fuel (37), used (37), edit (31), space (30), launch (28), motors (26), that (26), use (24), high (24), was (23), motor (23), propulsion (22), composite (20), nozzle (19), thrust (18), grain (18), can (18), this (17), shuttle (17), stages (17), stage (17), energy (17), retrieved (16), impulse (16), rocketry (16), orbital (15), specific (15), missiles (15), upper (15), casing (15), has (14), may (13), articles (13), liquid (13), boosters (13), black (13), military (13), such (13), performance (13), which (13), exhaust (13), ammonium (13), links (12), were (12), air (12), first (12), technology (11), united (11), states (11), star (11), vehicles (11), gas (11), mass (11), thruster (11), isbn (11), powder (11), higher (11), burn (11), dead (10), all (10), engines (10), engine (10), system (10), electric (10), double (10), off (10), archived (10), 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been widely used especially on delta launch vehicles and as spin stabilized upper stages to launch satellites from the cargo bay of the space shuttle star motors have propellant fractions as high as 94 6 but add on structures and equipment reduce the operating mass fraction by 2 or more higher performing solid rocket propellants are used in large strategic missiles as opposed to commercial launch vehicles hmx c 4 h 8 n 4 no 2 4 a nitramine with greater energy than ammonium perchlorate was used in the propellant of the peacekeeper icbm and is the main ingredient in nepe 75 propellant used in the trident ii d 5 fleet ballistic missile 26 it is because of explosive hazard that the higher energy military solid propellants containing hmx are not used in commercial launch vehicles except when the lv is an adapted ballistic missile already containing hmx propellant minotaur iv and v based on the retired peacekeeper icbms 27 the naval air weapons station at china lake california developed a new compound c 6 h 6 n 6 no 2 6 called simply cl 20 china lake compound 20 compared to hmx cl 20 has 14 more energy per mass 20 more energy per volume and a higher oxygen to fuel ratio 28 one of the motivations for development of these very high energy density military solid propellants is to achieve mid course exo atmospheric abm capability from missiles small enough to fit in existing ship based below deck vertical launch tubes and air mobile truck mounted launch tubes cl 20 propellant compliant with congress 2004 insensitive munitions im law has been demonstrated and may as its cost comes down be suitable for use in commercial launch vehicles with a very significant increase in performance compared with the currently favored apcp solid propellants with a specific impulse of 309 s already demonstrated by peacekeeper s second stage using hmx propellant the higher energy of cl 20 propellant can be expected to increase specific impulse to around 320 s in similar icbm or launch vehicle upper stage applications without the explosive hazard of hmx 29 an attractive attribute for military use is the ability for solid rocket propellant to remain loaded in the rocket for long durations and then be reliably launched at a moment s notice propellant families edit black powder gunpowder propellant edit black powder gunpowder is composed of charcoal fuel potassium nitrate oxidizer and sulfur fuel and catalyst it is one of the oldest pyrotechnic compositions with application to rocketry in modern times black powder finds use in low power model rockets such as estes and quest rockets 30 31 as it is cheap and fairly easy to produce the fuel grain is typically a mixture of pressed fine powder into a solid hard slug with a burn rate that is highly dependent upon exact composition and operating conditions the specific impulse of black powder is low around 80 s 0 78 km s the grain is sensitive to fracture and therefore catastrophic failure black powder does not typically find use in motors above 40 newtons 9 0 pounds force thrust zinc sulfur zs propellants edit composed of powdered zinc metal and powdered sulfur oxidizer zs or micrograin is another pressed propellant that does not find any practical application outside specialized amateur rocketry circles due to its poor performance as most zs burns outside the combustion chamber and fast linear burn rates on the order of 2 m s zs is most often employed as a novelty propellant as the rocket accelerates extremely quickly leaving a spectacular large orange fireball behind it double base db propellants edit db propellants are composed of two monopropellant fuel components where one typically acts as a high energy yet unstable monopropellant and the other acts as a lower energy stabilizing and gelling monopropellant in typical circumstances nitroglycerin is dissolved in a nitrocellulose gel and solidified with additives db propellants are implemented in applications where minimal smoke is required yet a medium high i sp of roughly 235 s 2 30 km s is required the addition of metal fuels such as aluminium can increase performance to around 250 s 2 5 km s though metal oxide nucleation in the exhaust can turn the smoke opaque composite propellants edit a powdered oxidizer and powdered metal fuel are intimately mixed and immobilized with a rubbery binder that also acts as a fuel composite propellants are often either ammonium nitrate based ancp or ammonium perchlorate based apcp ammonium nitrate composite propellant often uses magnesium and or aluminium as fuel and delivers medium performance i sp of about 210 s 2 1 km s whereas ammonium perchlorate composite propellant often uses aluminium fuel and delivers high performance vacuum i sp up to 296 s 2 90 km s with a single piece nozzle or 304 s 2 98 km s with a high area ratio telescoping nozzle 22 aluminium is used as fuel because it has a reasonable specific energy density a high volumetric energy density and is difficult to ignite accidentally composite propellants are cast and retain their shape after the rubber binder such as hydroxyl terminated polybutadiene htpb cross links solidifies with the aid of a curative additive because of its high performance moderate ease of manufacturing and moderate cost apcp finds widespread use in space military and amateur rockets whereas cheaper and less efficient ancp finds use in amateur rocketry and gas generators ammonium dinitramide nh 4 n no 2 2 is being considered as a 1 to 1 chlorine free substitute for ammonium perchlorate in composite propellants unlike ammonium nitrate adn can be substituted for ap without a loss in motor performance polyurethane bound aluminium apcp solid fuel was used in the submarine launched polaris missiles 32 apcp used in the space shuttle solid rocket boosters consisted of ammonium perchlorate oxidizer 69 6 by weight aluminium fuel 16 iron oxide a catalyst 0 4 polybutadiene acrylonitrile pban polymer a non urethane rubber binder that held the mixture together and acted as secondary fuel 12 04 and an epoxy curing agent 1 96 33 34 it developed a specific impulse of 242 seconds 2 37 km s at sea level or 268 seconds 2 63 km s in a vacuum the 2005 2009 constellation program was to use a similar pban bound apcp 35 in 2009 a group succeeded in creating a propellant of water and nanoaluminium alice candy propellants edit in general rocket candy propellants are an oxidizer typically potassium nitrate and a sugar fuel typically dextrose sorbitol or sucrose that are cast into shape by gently melting the propellant constituents together and pouring or packing the amorphous colloid into a mold candy propellants generate a low medium specific impulse of roughly 130 s 1 3 km s and thus are used primarily by amateur and experimental rocketeers high energy composite hec propellants edit typical hec propellants start with a standard composite propellant mixture such as apcp and add a high energy explosive to the mix this extra component usually is in the form of small crystals of rdx or hmx both of which have higher energy than ammonium perchlorate despite a modest increase in specific impulse implementation is limited due to the increased hazards of the high explosive additives composite modified double base propellants edit composite modified double base propellants start with a nitrocellulose nitroglycerin double base propellant as a binder and add solids typically ammonium perchlorate ap and powdered aluminium normally used in composite propellants the ammonium perchlorate makes up the oxygen deficit introduced by using nitrocellulose improving the overall specific impulse the aluminium improves specific impulse as well as combustion stability high performing propellants such as nepe 75 used to fuel the trident ii d 5 slbm replace most of the ap with polyethylene glycol bound hmx further increasing specific impulse the mixing of composite and double base propellant ingredients has become so common as to blur the functional definition of double base propellants minimum signature smokeless propellants edit one of the most active areas of solid propellant research is the development of high energy minimum signature propellant using c 6 h 6 n 6 no 2 6 cl 20 china lake compound 20 which has 14 higher energy per mass and 20 higher energy density than hmx the new propellant has been successfully developed and tested in tactical rocket motors the propellant is non polluting acid free solid particulates free and lead free it is also smokeless and has only a faint shock diamond pattern that is visible in the otherwise transparent exhaust without the bright flame and dense smoke trail produced by the burning of aluminized propellants these smokeless propellants all but eliminate the risk of giving away the positions from which the missiles are fired the new cl 20 propellant is shock insensitive hazard class 1 3 as opposed to current hmx smokeless propellants which are highly detonable hazard class 1 1 cl 20 is considered a major breakthrough in solid rocket propellant technology but has yet to see widespread use because costs remain high 28 electric solid propellants edit electric solid propellants esps are a family of high performance plastisol solid propellants that can be ignited and throttled by the application of electric current unlike conventional rocket motor propellants that are difficult to control and extinguish esps can be ignited reliably at precise intervals and durations it requires no moving parts and the propellant is insensitive to flames or electrical sparks 36 hobby and amateur model rocketry edit solid propellant rocket motors can be bought for use in model rocketry they are normally small cylinders of black powder fuel with an integral nozzle and optionally a small charge that is set off when the propellant is exhausted after a time delay this charge can be used to trigger a camera or deploy a parachute without this charge and delay the motor may ignite a second stage black powder only in amateur rocketry candy propellants are common because they offer relative safety and ease of production ingredients that are readily available publicly and a higher specific impulse than blackpowder motors in mid and high power rocketry commercially made apcp motors are widely used they can be designed as either single use or reloadables these motors are available in impulse ranges from a 1 26 ns 2 50 ns to o 20 48 kns 40 96 kns from several manufacturers they are manufactured in standardized diameters and varying lengths depending on required impulse standard motor diameters are 13 18 24 29 38 54 75 98 and 150 millimeters different propellant formulations are available to produce different thrust profiles as well as special effects such as colored flames smoke trails or large quantities of sparks produced by adding titanium sponge to the mix use edit sounding rockets edit almost all sounding rockets use solid motors astrobee black brant s 310 s 520 skylark rocket terrier orion terrier malemute vsb 30 missiles edit due to reliability ease of storage and handling solid rockets are used on missiles and icbms air to air missiles aim 9 sidewinder aim 54 phoenix fakour 90 meteor r 33 pl 15 ballistic missiles jericho sejjil 9k720 iskander fateh 110 atacms df 21 icbms lgm 30 minuteman ugm 133 trident ii lgm 118 peacekeeper rt 2pm topol df 41 m51 slbm orbital rockets edit solid rockets are suitable for launching small payloads to orbital velocities especially if three or more stages are used many of these are based on repurposed icbms scout athena mu pegasus taurus minotaur start 1 pslv alternating solid and liquid stages sslv all lower 3 stages are solid stages sfdr shavit vega long march 11 omega project was cancelled in 2020 rocket unflown qaem 100 gravity 1 gravity 1 is the largest payload capacity rocket to get into orbit with only solid rocket motors larger liquid fueled orbital rockets often use solid rocket boosters to gain enough initial thrust to launch the fully fueled rocket main article solid rocket booster delta ii titan iv space shuttle space launch system ariane 5 atlas ii atlas v optionally 1 5 boosters delta iv optionally 2 or 4 boosters h iia h iib pslv optional solid boosters to lift heavier payloads gslv mk iii solid fuel is also used for some upper stages particularly the star 37 sometimes referred to as the burner upper stage and the star 48 sometimes referred to as the payload assist module or pam both manufactured originally by thiokol and today by northrop grumman they are used to lift large payloads to intended orbits such as the global positioning system satellites or smaller payloads to interplanetary or even interstellar trajectories another solid fuel upper stage used by the space shuttle and the titan iv was the boeing manufactured inertial upper stage ius pioneer 10 and pioneer 11 were both sent out of the solar system by star 37e upper stages from atlas centaur rockets voyager 1 and voyager 2 were both sent out of the solar system by star 37e upper stages from titan iiie rockets magellan was sent to venus on an ius after being deployed from space shuttle atlantis on sts 30 galileo was sent to jupiter on an ius after being deployed from space shuttle atlantis on sts 34 ulysses was sent to jupiter on an ius and a star 48 pam after being deployed from space shuttle discovery on sts 41 it then was placed in a polar orbit around the sun following a gravity assist around jupiter new horizons was sent out of the solar system on a star 48 pam from an atlas v rocket some rockets like the antares manufactured by northrop grumman have mandatory solid fuel upper stages the antares rocket uses the northrop grumman manufactured castor 30 as an upper stage advanced research edit environmentally sensitive fuel formulations such as alice propellant ramjets with solid fuel variable thrust designs based on variable nozzle geometry hybrid rockets that use solid fuel and throttleable liquid or gaseous oxidizer see also edit comparison of solid fuelled orbital launch systems comparison of orbital launch systems comparison of orbital launcher families list of canceled launch vehicle designs list of missiles list of orbital launch systems list of sounding rockets list of military rockets fireworks pyrotechnic composition intercontinental ballistic missile jetex space shuttle solid rocket booster crawford burner nano thermite skyrocket references edit chapters 1 2 blazing the trail the early history of spacecraft and rocketry mike gruntman aiaa 2004 isbn 1 56347 705 x culler jessica 2015 06 16 ladee lunar atmosphere dust and environment explorer nasa retrieved 2020 06 02 lockmart and atk athena launch vehicles selected as a nasa launch services provider www space travel com solid propellant rocket motor having self extinguishing propellant grain and systems therefrom hu wen rui 1997 space science in china crc press published august 20 1997 p 15 isbn 978 9056990237 1 2 greatrix david r 2012 powered flight t...
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