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eering numerous advances such as floating point numbers replacement of the hard to implement decimal system used in charles babbage s earlier design by the simpler binary system meant that zuse s machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable given the technologies available at that time 78 despite lacking explicit conditional execution the z3 was proven to have been a theoretically turing complete machine in 1998 by raúl rojas 79 in two 1936 patent applications zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data the key insight of what became known as the von neumann architecture first implemented in 1948 in america in the electromechanical ibm ssec and in britain in the fully electronic manchester baby 80 zuse suffered setbacks during world war ii when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of allied bombing campaigns apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the uk and us until much later although at least ibm was aware of it as it financed his post war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on zuse s patents in 1944 the harvard mark i was constructed at ibm s endicott laboratories 81 it was a similar general purpose electro mechanical computer to the z3 but was not quite turing complete digital computation edit the term digital was first suggested by george robert stibitz and refers to where a signal such as a voltage is not used to directly represent a value as it would be in an analog computer but to encode it in november 1937 stibitz then working at bell labs 1930 1941 82 completed a relay based calculator he later dubbed the model k for k itchen table on which he had assembled it which became the first binary adder 83 typically signals have two states low usually representing 0 and high usually representing 1 but sometimes three valued logic is used especially in high density memory modern computers generally use binary logic but many early machines were decimal computers in these machines the basic unit of data was the decimal digit encoded in one of several schemes including binary coded decimal or bcd bi quinary excess 3 and two out of five code the mathematical basis of digital computing is boolean algebra developed by the british mathematician george boole in his work the laws of thought published in 1854 his boolean algebra was further refined in the 1860s by william jevons and charles sanders peirce and was first presented systematically by ernst schröder and a n whitehead 84 in 1879 gottlob frege developed the formal approach to logic and proposes the first logic language for logical equations 85 in the 1930s and working independently american electronic engineer claude shannon and soviet logician victor shestakov both showed a one to one correspondence between the concepts of boolean logic and certain electrical circuits now called logic gates which are now ubiquitous in digital computers 86 they showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the expressions of boolean algebra 87 this thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design in addition shannon s paper gives a correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder 88 electronic data processing edit atanasoff berry computer replica at first floor of durham center iowa state university purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog machines such as the z3 the atanasoff berry computer the colossus computers and the eniac were built by hand using circuits containing relays or valves vacuum tubes and often used punched cards or punched paper tape for input and as the main non volatile storage medium 89 engineer tommy flowers joined the telecommunications branch of the general post office in 1926 while working at the research station in dollis hill in the 1930s he began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system using thousands of vacuum tubes 61 in the us in 1940 arthur dickinson ibm invented the first digital electronic computer 90 this calculating device was fully electronic control calculations and output the first electronic display 91 john vincent atanasoff and clifford e berry of iowa state university developed the atanasoff berry computer abc in 1942 92 the first binary electronic digital calculating device 93 this design was semi electronic electro mechanical control and electronic calculations and used about 300 vacuum tubes with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory however its paper card writer reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical the machine s special purpose nature and lack of changeable stored program distinguish it from modern computers 94 computers whose logic was primarily built using vacuum tubes are now known as first generation computers the electronic programmable computer edit main articles colossus computer and eniac colossus was the first electronic digital programmable computing device and was used to break german ciphers during world war ii it remained unknown as a military secret well into the 1970s during world war ii british codebreakers at bletchley park 40 miles 64 km north of london achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted enemy military communications the german encryption machine enigma was first attacked with the help of the electro mechanical bombes 95 they ruled out possible enigma settings by performing chains of logical deductions implemented electrically most possibilities led to a contradiction and the few remaining could be tested by hand the germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems quite different from enigma the lorenz sz 40 42 machine was used for high level army communications code named tunny by the british the first intercepts of lorenz messages began in 1941 as part of an attack on tunny max newman and his colleagues developed the heath robinson a fixed function machine to aid in code breaking 96 tommy flowers a senior engineer at the post office research station 97 was recommended to max newman by alan turing 98 and spent eleven months from early february 1943 designing and building the more flexible colossus computer which superseded the heath robinson 99 100 after a functional test in december 1943 colossus was shipped to bletchley park where it was delivered on 18 january 1944 101 and attacked its first message on 5 february 102 by the time germany surrendered in may 1945 there were ten colossi working at bletchley park 103 wartime photo of colossus no 10 colossus was the world s first electronic digital programmable computer 61 it used a large number of valves vacuum tubes it had paper tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data 104 but it was not turing complete data input to colossus was by photoelectric reading of a paper tape transcription of the enciphered intercepted message this was arranged in a continuous loop so that it could be read and re read multiple times there being no internal store for the data the reading mechanism ran at 5 000 characters per second with the paper tape moving at 40 ft s 12 2 m s 27 3 mph colossus mark 1 contained 1500 thermionic valves tubes but mark 2 with 2400 valves and five processors in parallel was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than mark 1 greatly speeding the decoding process mark 2 was designed while mark 1 was being constructed allen coombs took over leadership of the colossus mark 2 project when tommy flowers moved on to other projects 105 the first mark 2 colossus became operational on 1 june 1944 just in time for the allied invasion of normandy on d day most of the use of colossus was in determining the start positions of the tunny rotors for a message which was called wheel setting colossus included the first ever use of shift registers and systolic arrays enabling five simultaneous tests each involving up to 100 boolean calculations this enabled five different possible start positions to be examined for one transit of the paper tape 106 as well as wheel setting some later colossi included mechanisms intended to help determine pin patterns known as wheel breaking both models were programmable using switches and plug panels in a way their predecessors had not been eniac was the first turing complete electronic device and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the united states army 107 without the use of these machines the allies would have been deprived of the very valuable intelligence that was obtained from reading the vast quantity of enciphered high level telegraphic messages between the german high command okw and their army commands throughout occupied europe details of their existence design and use were kept secret well into the 1970s winston churchill personally issued an order for their destruction into pieces no larger than a man s hand to keep secret that the british were capable of cracking lorenz sz cyphers from german rotor stream cipher machines during the oncoming cold war two of the machines were transferred to the newly formed gchq and the others were destroyed as a result the machines were not included in many histories of computing g a reconstructed working copy of one of the colossus machines is now on display at bletchley park the eniac electronic numerical integrator and computer was the first electronic programmable computer built in the us although the eniac used similar technology to the colossi it was much faster and more flexible and was turing complete like the colossi a program on the eniac was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later once a program was ready to be run it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches the programmers of the eniac were women who had been trained as mathematicians 108 it combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems it could add or subtract 5000 times a second a thousand times faster than any other machine it also had modules to multiply divide and square root high speed memory was limited to 20 words equivalent to about 80 bytes built under the direction of john mauchly and j presper eckert at the university of pennsylvania eniac s development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945 the machine was huge weighing 30 tons using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18 000 vacuum tubes 1 500 relays and hundreds of thousands of resistors capacitors and inductors 109 one of its major engineering feats was to minimize the effects of tube burnout which was a common problem in machine reliability at that time the machine was in almost constant use for the next ten years stored program computer edit main article stored program computer further information list of vacuum tube computers design of the von neumann architecture 1947 the theoretical basis for the stored program computer was proposed by alan turing in his 1936 paper on computable numbers 71 whilst turing was at princeton university working on his phd john von neumann got to know him and became intrigued by his concept of a universal computing machine 110 early computing machines executed the set sequence of steps known as a program that could be altered by changing electrical connections using switches or a patch panel or plugboard however this process of reprogramming was often difficult and time consuming requiring engineers to create flowcharts and physically re wire the machines 111 stored program computers by contrast were designed to store a set of instructions a program in memory typically the same memory as stored data eniac inventors john mauchly and j presper eckert proposed in august 1944 the construction of a machine called the electronic discrete variable automatic computer edvac and design work for it commenced at the university of pennsylvania s moore school of electrical engineering before the eniac was fully operational the design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the eniac s construction and a high speed serial access memory 112 however eckert and mauchly left the project and its construction floundered in 1945 von neumann visited the moore school and wrote notes on what he saw which he sent to the project the u s army liaison there had them typed and circulated as the first draft of a report on the edvac the draft did not mention eckert and mauchly and despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas 61 the computer architecture it outlined became known as the von neumann architecture in 1945 turing joined the uk national physical laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored program digital computer his late 1945 report proposed electronic calculator was the first reasonably detailed specification for such a device turing presented a more detailed paper to the national physical laboratory npl executive committee in march 1946 giving the first substantially complete design of a stored program computer a device that was called the automatic computing engine ace turing considered that the speed and the size of computer memory were crucial elements 113 p 4 so he proposed a high speed memory of what would today be called 25 kb accessed at a speed of 1 mhz the ace implemented subroutine calls whereas the edvac did not and the ace also used abbreviated computer instructions an early form of programming language manchester baby edit main article manchester baby a section of the rebuilt manchester baby the first electronic stored program computer the manchester baby small scale experimental machine ssem was the world s first electronic stored program computer it was built at the victoria university of manchester by frederic c williams tom kilburn and geoff tootill and ran its first program on 21 june 1948 114 the machine was not intended to be a practical computer but was instead designed as a testbed for the williams tube the first random access digital storage device 115 invented by freddie williams and tom kilburn 116 117 at the university of manchester in 1946 and 1947 it was a cathode ray tube that used an effect called secondary emission to temporarily store electronic binary data and was used successfully in several early computers described as small and primitive in a 1998 retrospective the baby was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer 118 as soon as it had demonstrated 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