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tone 31 ᵐt͡s ᵐt͡sʰ ᵐd͡z may be pronounced as pt͡s pt͡sʰ pd͡z eg mtsʰɑ³¹ ptsʰɑ³¹ to rub with the hands make a cord 16 cluster ŋg sometimes may be realized as plain velar nasal eg ŋga³¹ ŋa³¹ yellow 16 manlong consonants edit initial consonants in manlong bugan 13 labial alveolar alveolo palatal velar uvular glottal plain pal plain pal sibilant plain pal nasal m mʲ n ɲ ŋ ɴ stop affricate voiceless plain p pʲ t tʲ t͡s t͡ɕ k kʲ q ʔ aspirated pʰ pʰʲ tʰ tʰʲ t͡sʰ t͡ɕʰ kʰ qʰ voiced plain b bʲ d dʲ d͡z d͡ʑ ɡ ɢ prenasalized ᵐb ᵐbʲ ᵐd ⁿd ᵐbd͡z ⁿd͡z ᶮd͡ʑ ᵑɡ ᶰɢ fricative voiceless f s ɕ x xʲ h voiced ʑ ɣ approximant w l j vowels edit nala vowels edit in nala bugan there is a distinction between tense throat vowels indicated here with an underline and lax throat plain vowels 16 oral vowels front central back plain tense plain tense plain tense close i y i ɯ u ɯ u close mid e e ə o open mid ɛ ɛ ɔ open a a nasal vowels front central back plain tense plain tense close ũ ũ mid ɛ̃ ə̃ õ open ã ã in the same syllable tense and lax vowels do not co occur the restriction seems to be phonemic because tense vowels are described as having a lower and more retracted tongue position than their lax counterparts eg ta³¹ near is realized as a central open a while tense a̠ in ta̠³¹ to bet is closer to ɑ 17 manlong vowels edit like nala bugan lax and tense vowel contrast is found in manlong bugan each monophthong also has a nasalized counterpart 18 front central back close i u close mid e ə o open mid ɛ ɔ open a tones edit nala tones edit in syllables with a rising tone tense vowels are accompanied by a noticeably constricted or tight laryngeal setting making the tense quality acoustically salient in syllables with the falling tone 31 however the laryngeal tension weakens so the contrast relies more heavily on vowel quality itself there are six contrastive tones in nala bugan the neutral tone only occurs in some prefixes 17 tone contour context neutral 0 open syllables low rising 13 open syllables high rising 35 open syllables low falling 31 checked p̚ t̚ k̚ open syllables mid level 33 checked open syllables high level 55 checked open syllables tone is highly unstable in bugan a portion of the lexicon can be pronounced with two tones without semantic losses e g ʑou³³ earth χau ³¹ valley mtshi ¹³ to milk 17 tone shift occurs relative common in speech contexts with harmonic assimilation to the tone contour of the conjunctive element e g χɛ³¹ bad mə χɛ taste bad nam³ year mə nam one year nam³³ ni³³ this year 19 manlong tones edit manlong bugan reportedly has four contour tones 55 44 24 and 31 20 morphosyntax edit nominal morphology edit proforms edit in possessive constructions tone contour in pronouns is raised to 55 to express possessive relation with the syntactically np head eg pa² ʔɔ father 1sg poss my father 21 singular dual plural 1st person exclusive ʔɔ³¹ wi³¹ bi̠ɔ̱³¹ pɛ³¹ inclusive wi³¹ 2nd person mɯ³¹ mi³¹ bi̠ɔ̱³¹ mi³¹ 3rd person ʔi³¹ hɛ³¹ bi̠ɔ̱³¹ hɛ³¹ interrogatives edit bugan appears to build interrogatives analytically by attaching the element pau³ to nominal or pronominal bases for example mɯ pau³ means who but can also function as an infinitive pronoun anyone this also holds true with mə dze what whatever 22 interrogative meaning mə dze what ʔo pau³ where ɣen pau³ why ɣɯ³¹pau³ how mɯ pau³ which one ta pau³ which ones tə pau³ how many tsə pau³ when which day classifiers edit there are two types of classifiers in bugan 23 noun verbal classifier purpose classifier purpose pau³¹ humans tsi³ time frequency biə³³ animals fɛ³¹ for trip li̠³³ long objects mtsa³ for eating tsʰe¹³ objects rivers tuŋ for biting tsu̠ŋ plants ŋga³¹ for sleeps naps liu³³ thin sheet objects ta̱ŋ³³ for hitting with fist tsam³³ pairs pam³ portions numerals edit bugan has a typical austroasiatic decimal counting system with head first combining forms for higher numerals for examples nineteen in bugan is mã³¹ ɕi³³ 10 9 forty is pau³³ mã³¹ 4 x 10 200 is bi³¹ ʑu³¹ 2 x 100 and 10 010 is mə vã¹³ lɛ³³ ma³¹ or 1 x 10 000 10 24 comparison of some cardinal numerals of bugan mang mangic and gorum south munda bugan mang gorum counting 25 gloss bugan mang gorum notes one bɔ mə măk bɔˀj mə is the weakly suppletive form of bɔ in nps with classifiers and numbers higher than 100 two biɔ³¹ bi³¹ ʑɯəi² bag bagu bi³¹ is the shorter form of biɔ³¹ only occurs in nps with classifiers and numbers larger than 100 three mtse³¹ pe³ yag yagu yagi cf santali pɛ four pau³³ pun² ungi cf santali pon five mi³³ hăn² mɔnlɔy six pi̱o̱³³ ʑɔ̆m² turgi cf palaung tɔr semelai pruʔ seven po̱u̱³¹ tăm¹ py³ gulgi eight sã³³ tăm¹ ham² tamgi nine ɕi³³ tăm¹ θin² timgi ten mã³¹ ʑi³ mɛ galgi cf wa kau palaung ʔukɤr hundred ʑu³¹ ran ʑan derivation edit a significant portion of bugan lexemes appears to be derived via phonological alternation a widespread feature in mainland southeast asian linguistic area 26 kui̠³³ to dry with smoke and kui³³ fire smoke ɕi po³¹ yesterday evening and ɕa po³¹ tomorrow evening ŋɔ³³ peppery and ŋa³³ salted tshuŋ³¹ throat and tshuŋ³³ thirsty mtsha¹³ to kill and mtsa³¹ to die a diminutive infix xi³¹ is often found in terms relating to small female animal e g mu³³li cow mu³³xi³¹li small cow mu³³ɕen nanny goat mu³³xi³ɕen small nanny goat 27 bugan nouns display a morphological distinction between free forms and combining forms in free forms the monosyllabic nominal root usually appear with a prefix although their characterization as prefixes is somewhat arbitrary as they never manifest in free isolation or carry any lexical meaning and productive function 28 those dozen or so prefixes in bugan seem to be fossilized retentions of an earlier classification system even if many common ones occur across various noun categories that are difficult to unite semantically 29 pə commonly found in body parʦ kinship nations people made objects or locative nouns pə lai³³ tongue pə bop³¹ bou³¹ head pə khui the han pə mio³¹ the miao hmong pə ʑuŋ ³¹ old people pə poŋ hammer pə ɕi̠ left side tə body parts localities or animals tə qo̱u̱³ palm of the hand tə ɣo inside tə qɔ³³thɔ tiger te plants birds rivers fauna made objects or weather te taŋ moss te ta̱n³³ pumpkin te kɔ̱ŋ³ shrimp pu animals pu laŋ³¹ stallion pu ɕen nanny goat mu³³ plants and female animals mu³³paŋ³¹ peach tree mu³³san pine tree mu³³tsau³³ bitch mu³³laŋ³¹ mare tse birds and made objects tse qa³ duck tse ŋaŋ³ goose tse va̠n³¹ ringnecked pheasant mə³³ ready made tools or objects mə³³tsa³¹ hand straw cutter mə³³dou³³ firewood knife mə³³kua³¹ folk song lə few body parts lə kə³³ lower jaw lə po shoulder di³³ january march or december of the chinese lunar calendar di³³tsaŋ³ january di³³ȵi³¹ february di³³sã¹³ march di³³liã³¹ december mə april november of the chinese lunar calendar mə pau³³ april mə mi³³ may mə bɔ november additionally new lexical words can be formed via compounding there are lexicalized verb noun compounds i e noun incorporation e g tsɔ̱³¹ɕɔ̱³ go hunting derived from tsɔ̱³¹ hunt and ɕɔ̱³ game compounds are generally head first e g biou³³ɣɔ³³ hill rock rock hill karst formation ʑuŋ ³¹ tse³¹ foot mountain foot of mountain although there are few examples in which the modifier precedes the head such as da³ ta̱ɯ̱³ water field rice field 19 copulas edit nala bugan has two copulas generic ni³³ ȵu³³ and negative mə sa̱ŋ ȵu³³ presumably derived from the same root which means do is not frequently used as copula 30 ʔɔ³¹ i ni³³ ȵu³³ cop pə ka̱n³³ bugan ʔɔ³¹ ni³³ ȵu³³ pə ka̱n³³ i cop bugan i am a bugan the preverbal negative mə appears to be deeply connected with a wide array of munda and austroasiatic preverbal negatives otherwise such as the conservative south munda juang finite negative ma gtaʔ ma kharia um gorum ambu 31 bugan li luo 2015 1044 ʔɔ³¹ i mə neg sa̱ŋ cop piau¹³ person pə se³³ guangnan ʔɔ³¹ mə sa̱ŋ piau¹³ pə se³³ i neg cop person guangnan i am not a native of guangnan kharia peterson 2011 kerkeʈʈā 1990 11 am you um neg co na m go mid irr 2sg laʔ ta emot mid pres am um co na m laʔ ta you neg go mid irr 2sg emot mid pres it looks like you won t be going hill gtaʔ anderson 2020 field notes ma bihæ nǝ neg attr marry attr ngire young man ma bihæ nǝ ngire neg attr marry attr young man unmarried young man bachelor sample text edit the following story was narrated by a bugan man named wang zhiyou in manlong dialect manlong village xichou county wenshan prefecture yunnan recorded and translated by li yunbing 2005 32 bugan folklore the sun and the chicken pei² sun tɕaŋ³¹ and tɕa̠² chicken pei² tɕaŋ³¹ tɕa̠² sun and chicken the sun and the chicken tɕaɯ³¹kei before pei² sun kai exist ɕi̠ nine mou na sisters tɕaɯ³¹kei pei² kai ɕi̠ mou na before sun exist nine sisters long ago there were nine suns in the sky xa³¹ sundry ɣɔ̠ stone tɕi̠ then ɣɔ̠ stone ka̠³¹ crack xa³¹ sundry lɯ̠³¹ grass tɕi̠ then lɯ̠³¹ grass tɕo̠u³¹ dry xa³¹ ɣɔ̠ tɕi̠ ɣɔ̠ ka̠³¹ xa³¹ lɯ̠³¹ tɕi̠ lɯ̠³¹ tɕo̠u³¹ sundry stone then stone crack sundry grass then grass dry the heat cracked the rocks and burnt all the grasses and plants xo mɯ ɣi̠³¹ fairy lɛ² add mɯ neg ɣoŋ² bear tu̠³¹ able ma² disc xo mɯ ɣi̠³¹ lɛ² mɯ ɣoŋ² tu̠³¹ ma² fairy add neg bear able disc even the fairy couldn t stand it ɕi̠ then ʑa̠u³¹ go ptsou to qoŋ pond ʑa̠u³¹ go ɕi̠ ʑa̠u³¹ ptsou qoŋ ʑa̠u³¹ then go to pond go and had to get into the pond qa³¹la³¹ then tɕʰaŋ invite pjou³¹ heavenly dog po³¹ come tɕa̠² bite qa³¹la³¹ tɕʰaŋ pjou³¹ po³¹ tɕa̠² then invite heavenly dog come bite she had to ask the heavenly dogs to eat the suns pei² sun ɕi then kou hide loŋ hole ʑa̠u go ma² disc ɕi̠ then pei² ɕi kou loŋ ʑa̠u ma² ɕi̠ sun then hide hole go disc then but the latter went hiding in their burrows la again ȵo̠u do ku³¹ sky ŋa̠² dark ma² disc la ȵo̠u ku³¹ ŋa̠² ma² again do sky dark disc making the sky dark pʰi³¹ call mɯ ȵdʑi what qa² call lɛ add mɯ neg no̠³¹ come ma² disc pʰi³¹ mɯ ȵdʑi qa² lɛ mɯ no̠³¹ ma² call what call add neg come disc the suns refused to come out despite numerous requests from all kinds of animals tɕʰaŋ invite tɕau bamboo chicken qa² call ma² disc qa² call lɛ add tɕʰaŋ tɕau qa² ma² qa² lɛ invite bamboo chicken call disc call add the bamboo chicken was the first to be asked to call the suns out mɯ neg no̠³¹ come ma² disc mɯ no̠³¹ ma² neg come disc but they still hid themselves in their burrows pu dou² later on ma² add tɕa̠² chicken la then qa² call sai again i³¹ it tu exit no̠³¹ come ma² disc pu dou² ma² tɕa̠² la qa² sai i³¹ tu no̠³¹ ma² later on add chicken then call again it exit come disc later on after many attempts the chicken made suns come out tɕau bamboo chicken lɛ̠³¹ shy ma² disc tɕau lɛ̠³¹ ma² bamboo chicken shy disc the bamboo chicken felt embarrassed tɕau bamboo chicken qʰe̠i³¹ run ma² disc ʑo̠ŋ foot ko³¹ a bit la̠ red ma² disc tɕau qʰe̠i³¹ ma² ʑo̠ŋ ko³¹ la̠ ma² bamboo chicken run disc foot a bit red disc and the chicken ran away its feet turning red from running ɣo² since qo then mɯ neg ɕaŋ raise ma² disc i³¹ it qo³¹ then mbjau hill ʑa̠u go ɣo² qo mɯ ɕaŋ ma² i³¹ qo³¹ mbjau ʑa̠u since then neg raise disc it then hill go from then on the bamboo chicken turned into wild birds living in the bush notes edit bugan at ethnologue 18th ed 2015 subscription required gordon raymond g jr ed 2005 ethnologue languages of the world 15th ed dallas summer institute of linguistics buganyu zhōngguó mínzú yǔyán yánjiū wǎng 中国民族语言研究网 in chinese archived from the original on 2012 03 22 guǎngnán xiàn nàsǎ zhèn lóngwāngdòng cūnwěihuì lǎowālóng zìráncūn 广南县那洒镇龙汪洞村委会老挖聋自然村 laowalong natural village longwangdong village committee nasa town guangnan county ynszxc gov cn in chinese archived from the original on 2018 08 15 retrieved 2012 09 23 guǎngnán xiàn nàsǎ zhèn lóngwāngdòng cūnwěihuì xīnwālóng zìráncūn 广南县那洒镇龙汪洞村委会新挖聋自然村 xinwalong natural village longwangdong village committee nasa town guangnan county ynszxc gov cn in chinese archived from the original on 2018 08 15 retrieved 2012 09 23 guǎngnán xiàn nàsǎ zhèn lóngwāngdòng cūnwěihuì nàlà zìráncūn 广南县那洒镇龙汪洞村委会那腊自然村 nala natural village longwangdong village committee nasa town guangnan county ynszxc gov cn in chinese archived from the original on 2016 03 05 retrieved 2012 09 23 guǎngnán xiàn zhuànjiǎo xiāng dàpíng cūnmín wěiyuánhuì jiǔpíng zìráncūn 广南县篆角乡大坪村民委员会九坪自然村 jiuping natural village daping village committee zhuanjiao township guangnan county ynszxc gov cn in chinese archived from the original on 2016 12 20 retrieved 2012 09 23 guǎngnán xiàn zhuànjiǎo xiāng dàpíng cūnmín wěiyuánhuì shíbēipō zìráncūn 广南县篆角乡大坪村民委员会石碑坡自然村 shibeipo natural village daping village committee zhuanjiao township guangnan county ynszxc gov cn in chinese archived from the original on 2016 03 05 retrieved 2012 09 23 xīchóu xiàn jījiē xiāng hǎizi cūnwěihuì mànlóng zìráncūn 西畴县鸡街乡海子村委会曼龙自然村 manlong natural village haizi village committee jijie township xichou county ynszxc gov cn in chinese archived from the original on 2015 04 19 retrieved 2012 09 23 li 1996 li 2006 li 2005 1 2 hsiu 2016 p 11 hsiu 2016 li luo 2015 p 1035 1 2 3 4 li luo 2015 p 1036 1 2 3 li luo 2015 p 1037 hsiu 2016 p 12 1 2 li luo 2015 p 1038 hsiu 2016 p 13 li luo 2015 p 1050 li luo 2015 p 1051 li luo 2015 p 1053 li luo 2015 p 1052 sidwell 2021 p 540 li luo 2015 p 1041 li luo 2015 p 1040 li luo 2015 p 1039 anderson 2021 p 35 li luo 2015 p 1044 anderson 2020 p 176 177 li luo 2015 p 1060 references edit anderson gregory d s 2020 proto munda prosody morphotactics and morphosyntax in south asian and austroasiatic contexts in jenny mathias sidwell paul alves mark eds austroasiatic syntax in areal and diachronic perspective brill pp 157 197 doi 10 1163 9789004425606_008 anderson gregory d s 2021 on the role of areal and genetic factors in the development of the word structure and morphosyntax of the munda languages in mohan shailendra ed advances in munda linguistics cambridge scholars publishing pp 22 77 isbn 978 1527570474 hsiu andrew 2016 a preliminary reconstruction of proto pakanic final term paper for a payap university graduate course doi 10 5281 zenodo 1127812 via zenodo li jinfang 1996 bugan a new mon khmer language of yunnan province china pdf mon khmer studies 26 135 160 li jinfang 李锦芳 2006 xīnán dìqū bīnwēi yǔyán diàochá yánjiū 西南地区濒危语言调查研究 studies on endangered languages in the southwest china in chinese beijing shi zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe li yunbing 李云兵 2005 bùgēngyǔ yánjiū 布赓语研究 a study of bugeng bugan in chinese beijing minzu chubanshe li jinfang luo yongxian 2015 bugan in paul sidwell and mathias jenny eds the handbook of austroasiatic languages leiden brill pp 1033 1064 cite book cs1 maint publisher location link sidwell paul 2021 northern austroasiatic languages of msea the languages and linguistics of mainland southeast asia de gruyter pp 499 546 doi 10 1515 9783110558142 023 v t e languages of china official standard chinese varieties of chinese danzhou mandarin northeastern beijing ji lu jiao liao zhongyuan lan yin jin southwestern sichuanese southeastern gan hakka hui mai min southern hokkien teoswa hainanese ...
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