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in serial input output such as serial ports uarts other serial communications interfaces like i²c serial peripheral interface and controller area network for system interconnect peripherals such as timers event counters pwm generators and watchdog clock generator often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal resonator or rc circuit many include analog to digital converters some include digital to analog converters in circuit programming and in circuit debugging support this integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring and circuit board space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate chips furthermore on low pin count devices in particular each pin may interface to several internal peripherals with the pin function selected by software this allows a part to be used in a wider variety of applications than if pins had dedicated functions micro controllers have proved to be highly popular in embedded systems since their introduction in the 1970s some microcontrollers use a harvard architecture separate memory buses for instructions and data allowing accesses to take place concurrently where a harvard architecture is used instruction words for the processor may be a different bit size than the length of internal memory and registers for example 12 bit instructions used with 8 bit data registers the decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult the microcontroller vendors often trade operating frequencies and system design flexibility against time to market requirements from their customers and overall lower system cost manufacturers have to balance the need to minimize the chip size against additional functionality microcontroller architectures vary widely some designs include general purpose microprocessor cores with one or more rom ram or i o functions integrated onto the package other designs are purpose built for control applications a micro controller instruction set usually has many instructions intended for bit manipulation bit wise operations to make control programs more compact 26 for example a general purpose processor might require several instructions to test a bit in a register and branch if the bit is set where a micro controller could have a single instruction to provide that commonly required function microcontrollers traditionally do not have a math coprocessor so floating point arithmetic is performed by software however some recent designs do include an fpu and dsp optimized features an example would be microchip s pic32 mips based line programming environments edit microcontrollers were originally programmed only in assembly language but various high level programming languages such as c python and javascript are now also in common use to target microcontrollers and embedded systems 27 compilers for general purpose languages will typically have some restrictions as well as enhancements to better support the unique characteristics of microcontrollers some microcontrollers have environments to aid developing certain types of applications microcontroller vendors often make tools freely available to make it easier to adopt their hardware microcontrollers with specialty hardware may require their own non standard dialects of c such as sdcc for the 8051 which prevent using standard tools such as code libraries or static analysis tools even for code unrelated to hardware features interpreters may also contain nonstandard features such as micropython although a fork circuitpython has looked to move hardware dependencies to libraries and have the language adhere to a more cpython standard interpreter firmware is also available for some microcontrollers for example basic on the early microcontrollers intel 8052 28 basic and forth on the zilog z8 29 as well as some modern devices typically these interpreters support interactive programming simulators are available for some microcontrollers these allow a developer to analyze what the behavior of the microcontroller and their program should be if they were using the actual part a simulator will show the internal processor state and also that of the outputs as well as allowing input signals to be generated while on the one hand most simulators will be limited from being unable to simulate much other hardware in a system they can exercise conditions that may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will in the physical implementation and can be the quickest way to debug and analyze problems recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on chip debug circuitry that when accessed by an in circuit emulator ice via jtag allow debugging of the firmware with a debugger a real time ice may allow viewing and or manipulating of internal states while running a tracing ice can record executed program and mcu states before after a trigger point types edit see also list of common microcontrollers as of 2008 update there are several dozen microcontroller architectures and vendors including arm core processors many vendors arm cortex m cores are specifically targeted toward microcontroller applications microchip technology atmel avr 8 bit avr32 32 bit and at91sam 32 bit cypress semiconductor s m8c core used in their psoc programmable system on chip freescale coldfire 32 bit and s08 8 bit freescale 68hc11 8 bit and others based on the motorola 6800 family intel 8051 also manufactured by nxp semiconductors infineon and many others infineon 8 bit xc800 16 bit xe166 32 bit xmc4000 arm based cortex m4f 32 bit tricore and 32 bit aurix tricore bit microcontrollers 30 maxim integrated max32600 max32620 max32625 max32630 max32650 max32640 mips microchip technology pic 8 bit pic16 pic18 16 bit dspic33 pic24 32 bit pic32 nxp semiconductors lpc1000 lpc2000 lpc3000 lpc4000 32 bit lpc900 lpc700 8 bit parallax propeller powerpc ise rabbit 2000 8 bit renesas electronics rl78 16 bit mcu rx 32 bit mcu superh v850 32 bit mcu h8 r8c 16 bit mcu silicon laboratories pipelined 8 bit 8051 microcontrollers and mixed signal arm based 32 bit microcontrollers stmicroelectronics stm8 8 bit st10 16 bit stm32 32 bit spc5 automotive 32 bit texas instruments ti msp430 16 bit msp432 32 bit c2000 32 bit toshiba tlcs 870 8 bit 16 bit many others exist some of which are used in very narrow range of applications or are more like applications processors than microcontrollers the microcontroller market is extremely fragmented with numerous vendors technologies and markets note that many vendors sell or have sold multiple architectures interrupt latency edit in contrast to general purpose computers microcontrollers used in embedded systems often seek to optimize interrupt latency over instruction throughput issues include both reducing the latency and making it be more predictable to support real time control when an electronic device causes an interrupt during the context switch the intermediate results registers have to be saved before the software responsible for handling the interrupt can run they must also be restored after that interrupt handler is finished if there are more processor registers this saving and restoring process may take more time increasing the latency if an isr does not require the use of some registers it may simply leave them alone rather than saving and restoring them so in that case those registers are not involved with the latency ways to reduce such context restore latency include having relatively few registers in their central processing units undesirable because it slows down most non interrupt processing substantially or at least having the hardware not save them all this fails if the software then needs to compensate by saving the rest manually another technique involves spending silicon gates on shadow registers one or more duplicate registers used only by the interrupt software perhaps supporting a dedicated stack other factors affecting interrupt latency include cycles needed to complete current cpu activities to minimize those costs microcontrollers tend to have short pipelines often three instructions or less small write buffers and ensure that longer instructions are continuable or restartable risc design principles ensure that most instructions take the same number of cycles helping avoid the need for most such continuation restart logic the length of any critical section that needs to be interrupted entry to a critical section restricts concurrent data structure access when a data structure must be accessed by an interrupt handler the critical section must block that interrupt accordingly interrupt latency is increased by however long that interrupt is blocked when there are hard external constraints on system latency developers often need tools to measure interrupt latencies and track down which critical sections cause slowdowns one common technique just blocks all interrupts for the duration of the critical section this is easy to implement but sometimes critical sections get uncomfortably long a more complex technique just blocks the interrupts that may trigger access to that data structure this is often based on interrupt priorities which tend to not correspond well to the relevant system data structures accordingly this technique is used mostly in very constrained environments processors may have hardware support for some critical sections examples include supporting atomic access to bits or bytes within a word or other atomic access primitives like the ldrex strex exclusive access primitives introduced in the armv6 architecture interrupt nesting some microcontrollers allow higher priority interrupts to interrupt lower priority ones this allows software to manage latency by giving time critical interrupts higher priority and thus lower and more predictable latency than less critical ones trigger rate when interrupts occur back to back microcontrollers may avoid an extra context save restore cycle by a form of tail call optimization lower end microcontrollers tend to support fewer interrupt latency controls than higher end ones memory technology edit two different kinds of memory are commonly used with microcontrollers a non volatile memory for storing firmware and a read write memory for temporary data data edit from the earliest microcontrollers to today six transistor sram is almost always used as the read write working memory with a few more transistors per bit used in the register file in addition to the sram some microcontrollers also have internal eeprom for data storage and even ones that do not have any or not enough are often connected to external serial eeprom chip such as the basic stamp or external serial flash memory chip a few microcontrollers beginning in 2003 have self programmable flash memory 7 firmware edit the earliest microcontrollers used mask rom to store firmware later microcontrollers such as the early versions of the freescale 68hc11 and early pic microcontrollers had eprom memory which used a translucent window to allow erasure via uv light while production versions had no such window being otp one time programmable firmware updates were equivalent to replacing the microcontroller itself thus many products were not upgradeable motorola mc68hc805 6 was the first microcontroller to use eeprom to store the firmware eeprom microcontrollers became more popular in 1993 when microchip introduced pic16c84 5 and atmel introduced an 8051 core microcontroller that was first one to use nor flash memory to store the firmware 7 today s microcontrollers almost all use flash memory with a few models using fram and some ultra low cost parts still using otp or mask rom see also edit electronics portal list of common microcontrollers list of wi fi microcontrollers list of open source hardware projects microbotics programmable logic controller single board microcontroller references edit 1971 microprocessor integrates cpu function onto a single chip the silicon engine computer history museum retrieved 22 july 2019 augarten stan 1983 the most widely used computer on a chip the tms 1000 state of the art a photographic history of the integrated circuit new haven and new york ticknor fields isbn 978 0 89919 195 9 retrieved 2009 12 23 trends in the semiconductor industry semiconductor history museum of japan archived from the original on 2019 06 27 retrieved 2019 06 27 a b oral history panel on the development and promotion of the intel 8048 microcontroller pdf computer history museum oral history 2008 p 4 retrieved 2016 04 04 a b chip hall of fame microchip technology pic 16c84 microcontroller ieee 2017 06 30 retrieved september 16 2018 a b motorola advance information 8 bit microcomputers mc68hc05b6 mc68hc05b4 mc68hc805b6 motorola document eadi0054ri motorola ltd 1988 a b c atmel s self programming flash microcontrollers pdf 2012 01 24 retrieved 2008 10 25 by odd jostein svendsli 2003 turley jim 2002 the two percent solution embedded retrieved 2018 07 11 cantrell tom 1998 microchip on the march circuit cellar 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michigan 2018 06 21 university of michigan outdoes ibm with world s smallest computer cnet 2018 06 22 ibm fighting counterfeiters with world s smallest computer cnet 2018 03 19 ibm built a computer the size of a grain of salt here s what it s for fortune 2018 03 19 heath steve 2003 embedded systems design edn series for design engineers 2 ed newnes pp 11 12 isbn 9780750655460 david harris sarah harris 2012 digital design and computer architecture second edition p 515 morgan kaufmann isbn 0123944244 easy way to build a microcontroller project mazzei daniele montelisciani gabriele baldi giacomo fantoni gualtiero 2015 changing the programming paradigm for the embedded in the iot domain 2015 ieee 2nd world forum on internet of things wf iot internet of things wf iot 2015 ieee 2nd world forum on milan ieee pp 239 244 doi 10 1109 wf iot 2015 7389059 isbn 978 1 5090 0366 2 8052 basic microcontrollers by jan axelson 1994 edwards robert 1987 optimizing the zilog z8 forth microcontroller for rapid prototyping pdf martin mariet...
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