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of the processor magnetic memory edit diagram of a 4 4 plane of magnetic core memory in an x y line coincident current setup x and y are drive lines s is sense z is inhibit arrows indicate the direction of current for writing magnetic drum memories were developed for the us navy during ww ii with the work continuing at engineering research associates era in 1946 and 1947 era then a part of univac included a drum memory in its 1103 announced in february 1953 the first mass produced computer the ibm 650 also announced in 1953 had about 8 5 kilobytes of drum memory magnetic core memory patented in 1949 139 with its first usage demonstrated for the whirlwind computer in august 1953 140 commercialization followed quickly magnetic core was used in peripherals of the ibm 702 delivered in july 1955 and later in the 702 itself the ibm 704 1955 and the ferranti mercury 1957 used magnetic core memory it went on to dominate the field into the 1970s when it was replaced with semiconductor memory magnetic core peaked in volume about 1975 and declined in usage and market share thereafter 141 as late as 1980 pdp 11 45 machines using magnetic core main memory and drums for swapping were still in use at many of the original unix sites early digital computer characteristics edit further information analytical engine comparison to other early computers defining characteristics of some early digital computers of the 1940s in the history of computing hardware name first operational numeral system computing mechanism programming turing complete arthur h dickinson ibm usa jan 1940 decimal electronic not programmable no joseph desch ncr usa march 1940 decimal electronic not programmable no zuse z3 germany may 1941 binary floating point electro mechanical program controlled by punched 35 mm film stock but no conditional branch in theory 1998 atanasoff berry computer usa 1942 binary electronic not programmable single purpose no colossus mark 1 uk feb 1944 binary electronic program controlled by patch cables and switches no harvard mark i ibm ascc usa may 1944 decimal electro mechanical program controlled by 24 channel punched paper tape but no conditional branch debatable colossus mark 2 uk june 1944 binary electronic program controlled by patch cables and switches conjectured 142 zuse z4 germany march 1945 binary floating point electro mechanical program controlled by punched 35 mm film stock in 1950 eniac usa december 1945 decimal electronic program controlled by patch cables and switches yes modified eniac usa april 1948 decimal electronic read only stored programming mechanism using the function tables as program rom yes arc2 sec uk may 1948 binary electronic stored program in rotating drum memory yes manchester baby uk june 1948 binary electronic stored program in williams cathode ray tube memory yes manchester mark 1 uk april 1949 binary electronic stored program in williams cathode ray tube memory and magnetic drum memory yes edsac uk may 1949 binary electronic stored program in mercury delay line memory yes csirac australia nov 1949 binary electronic stored program in mercury delay line memory yes transistor computers edit main article transistor computer further information list of transistorized computers a bipolar junction transistor the bipolar transistor was invented in 1947 from 1955 onward transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs 143 giving rise to the second generation of computers compared to vacuum tubes transistors have many advantages they are smaller and require less power than vacuum tubes so give off less heat silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer service life transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space transistors greatly reduced computers size initial cost and operating cost typically second generation computers were composed of large numbers of printed circuit boards such as the ibm standard modular system 144 each carrying one to four logic gates or flip flops at the university of manchester a team under the leadership of tom kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves vacuum tubes initially the only devices available were germanium point contact transistors less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power 145 their first transistorized computer and the first in the world was operational by 1953 146 and a second version was completed there in april 1955 146 the 1955 version used 200 transistors 1 300 solid state diodes and had a power consumption of 150 watts however the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 khz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory so it was not the first completely transistorized computer that distinction goes to the harwell cadet of 1955 147 built by the electronics division of the atomic energy research establishment at harwell the design featured a 64 kilobyte magnetic drum memory store with multiple moving heads that had been designed at the national physical laboratory uk by 1953 this team had transistor circuits operating to read and write on a smaller magnetic drum from the royal radar establishment the machine used a low clock speed of only 58 khz to avoid having to use any valves to generate the clock waveforms 148 147 cadet used 324 point contact transistors provided by the uk company standard telephones and cables 76 junction transistors were used for the first stage amplifiers for data read from the drum since point contact transistors were too noisy from august 1956 cadet was offering a regular computing service during which it often executed continuous computing runs of 80 hours or more 149 150 problems with the reliability of early batches of point contact and alloyed junction transistors meant that the machine s mean time between failures was about 90 minutes but this improved once the more reliable bipolar junction transistors became available 151 the manchester university transistor computer s design was adopted by the local engineering firm of metropolitan vickers in their metrovick 950 the first commercial transistor computer anywhere 152 six metrovick 950s were built the first completed in 1956 they were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years 146 a second generation computer the ibm 1401 captured about one third of the world market ibm installed more than ten thousand 1401s between 1960 and 1964 transistor peripherals edit transistorized electronics improved not only the cpu central processing unit but also the peripheral devices the second generation disk data storage units were able to store tens of millions of letters and digits next to the fixed disk storage units connected to the cpu via high speed data transmission were removable disk data storage units a removable disk pack can be easily exchanged with another pack in a few seconds even if the removable disks capacity is smaller than fixed disks their interchangeability guarantees a nearly unlimited quantity of data close at hand magnetic tape provided archival capability for this data at a lower cost than disk many second generation cpus delegated peripheral device communications to a secondary processor for example while the communication processor controlled card reading and punching the main cpu executed calculations and binary branch instructions one databus would bear data between the main cpu and core memory at the cpu s fetch execute cycle rate and other databusses would typically serve the peripheral devices on the pdp 1 the core memory s cycle time was 5 microseconds consequently most arithmetic instructions took 10 microseconds 100 000 operations per second because most operations took at least two memory cycles one for the instruction one for the operand data fetch during the second generation remote terminal units often in the form of teleprinters like a friden flexowriter saw greatly increased use k telephone connections provided sufficient speed for early remote terminals and allowed hundreds of kilometers separation between remote terminals and the computing center eventually these stand alone computer networks would be generalized into an interconnected network of networks the internet l transistor supercomputers edit the university of manchester atlas in january 1963 the early 1960s saw the advent of supercomputing the atlas was a joint development between the university of manchester ferranti and plessey and was first installed at manchester university and officially commissioned in 1962 as one of the world s first supercomputers considered to be the most powerful computer in the world at that time 155 it was said that whenever atlas went offline half of the united kingdom s computer capacity was lost 156 it was a second generation machine using discrete germanium transistors atlas also pioneered the atlas supervisor considered by many to be the first recognisable modern operating system 157 in the us a series of computers at control data corporation cdc were designed by seymour cray to use innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance 158 the cdc 6600 released in 1964 is generally considered the first supercomputer 159 160 the cdc 6600 outperformed its predecessor the ibm 7030 stretch by about a factor of 3 with performance of about 1 megaflops the cdc 6600 was the world s fastest computer from 1964 to 1969 when it relinquished that status to its successor the cdc 7600 integrated circuit computers edit main article history of computing hardware 1960s present third generation the third generation of digital electronic computers used integrated circuit ic chips as the basis of their logic the idea of an integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working for the royal radar establishment of the ministry of defence geoffrey w a dummer the first working integrated circuits were invented by jack kilby at texas instruments and robert noyce at fairchild semiconductor 161 kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in july 1958 successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 september 1958 162 kilby s invention was a hybrid integrated circuit hybrid ic 163 it had external wire connections which made it difficult to mass produce 164 noyce came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year after kilby 165 noyce s invention was a monolithic integrated circuit ic chip 166 164 his chip solved many practical problems that kilby s had not produced at fairchild semiconductor it was made of silicon whereas kilby s chip was made of germanium the basis for noyce s monolithic ic was fairchild s planar process which allowed integrated circuits to be laid out using the same principles as those of printed circuits the planar process was developed by noyce s colleague jean hoerni in early 1959 based on mohamed m atalla s work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide at bell labs in the late 1950s 167 168 169 third generation integrated circuit computers first appeared in the early 1960s in computers developed for government purposes and then in commercial computers beginning in the mid 1960s the first silicon ic computer was the apollo guidance computer or agc 170 although not the most powerful computer of its time the extreme constraints on size mass and power of the apollo spacecraft required the agc to be much smaller and denser than any prior computer weighing in at only 70 pounds 32 kg each lunar landing mission carried two agcs one each in the command and lunar ascent modules semiconductor memory edit main article semiconductor memory the mosfet metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or mos transistor was invented by mohamed m atalla and dawon kahng at bell labs in 1959 171 in addition to data processing the mosfet enabled the practical use of mos transistors as memory cell storage elements a function previously served by magnetic cores semiconductor memory also known as mos memory was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic core memory 172 mos random access memory ram in the form of static ram sram was developed by john schmidt at fairchild semiconductor in 1964 172 173 in 1966 robert dennard at the ibm thomas j watson research center developed mos dynamic ram dram 174 in 1967 dawon kahng and simon sze at bell labs developed the floating gate mosfet the basis for mos non volatile memory such as eprom eeprom and flash memory 175 176 microprocessor computers edit main article history of computing hardware 1960s present fourth generation the fourth generation of digital electronic computers used microprocessors as the basis of their logic the microprocessor has origins in the mos integrated circuit mos ic chip 177 due to rapid mosfet scaling mos ic chips rapidly increased in complexity at a rate predicted by moore s law leading to large scale integration lsi with hundreds of transistors on a single mos chip by the late 1960s the application of mos lsi chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor could be contained on a single mos lsi chip 177 the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term microprocessor the earliest multi chip microprocessors were the four phase systems al 1 in 1969 and garrett airesearch mp944 in 1970 developed with multiple mos lsi chips 177 the first single chip microprocessor was the intel 4004 178 developed on a single pmos lsi chip 177 it was designed and realized by ted hoff federico faggin masatoshi shima and stanley mazor at intel and released in 1971 m the die from an intel 8742 an 8 bit microcontroller that includes a cpu running at 12 mhz ram eprom and i o while the earliest microprocessor ics literally contained only the processor i e the central processing unit of a computer their progressive development naturally led to chips containing most or all of the internal electronic parts of a computer the integrated circuit in the image on the right for example an intel 8742 is an 8 bit microcontroller that includes a cpu running at 12 mhz 128 bytes of ram 2048 bytes of eprom and i o in the same chip during the 1960s there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies n ibm implemented its ibm solid logic technology modules in hybrid circuits for the ibm system 360 in 1964 as late as 1975 sperry univac continued the manufacture of second generation machines such as the univac 494 the burroughs large systems such as the b5000 were stack machines which allowed for simpler programming these pushdown automatons were also implemented in minicomputers and microprocessors later which influenced programming language design minicompu...
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