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ates and free states in 1858 throughout the 1850s the sectional conflict regarding slavery was further inflamed by national legislation in the u s congress and decisions of the supreme court in congress the fugitive slave act of 1850 mandated the forcible return to their enslavers in the south of persons taking refuge in non slave states while the kansas nebraska act of 1854 effectively gutted the anti slavery requirements of the missouri compromise 108 in its dred scott decision of 1857 the supreme court ruled against an enslaved person brought into non slave territory simultaneously declaring the entire missouri compromise to be unconstitutional these and other events exacerbated tensions between north and south that would culminate in the american civil war 1861 1865 109 110 111 beginning with south carolina 11 slave state governments voted to secede from the united states in 1860 1861 joining to create the confederate states of america 112 all other state governments remained loyal to the union s 113 114 war broke out in april 1861 after the confederacy bombarded fort sumter 115 116 following the emancipation proclamation on january 1 1863 many freed slaves joined the union army 117 the war began to turn in the union s favor following the 1863 siege of vicksburg and battle of gettysburg and the confederates surrendered in 1865 after the union s victory in the battle of appomattox court house 118 reconstruction gilded age and progressive era 1866 1917 main article history of the united states 1865 1917 an edison studios film showing immigrants arriving at ellis island in new york harbor a major point of entry for european immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries 119 120 efforts toward reconstruction in the secessionist south had begun as early as 1862 121 but it was only after president lincoln s assassination that the three reconstruction amendments to the constitution were ratified to protect civil rights the amendments codified nationally the abolition of slavery and involuntary servitude except as punishment for crimes promised equal protection under the law for all persons and prohibited denial or abridgment of voting rights on the basis of race color or previous enslavement 122 123 124 125 as a result african americans took an active political role in ex confederate states in the decade following the civil war 126 127 the former confederate states were readmitted to the union beginning with tennessee in 1866 and ending with georgia in 1870 128 129 national infrastructure including transcontinental telegraph and railroads spurred growth in the american frontier this was accelerated by the homestead acts through which nearly 10 percent of the total land area of the united states was given away free to some 1 6 million homesteaders 130 131 from 1865 through 1917 an unprecedented stream of immigrants arrived in the united states including 24 4 million from europe 132 most came through the port of new york as new york city and other major cities on the east coast became home to large jewish irish and italian populations many northern europeans as well as significant numbers of germans and other central europeans moved to the midwest at the same time about one million french canadians migrated from quebec to new england 133 during the great migration millions of african americans left the rural south for urban areas in the north 134 alaska was purchased from russia in 1867 135 the compromise of 1877 is generally considered the end of the reconstruction era as it resolved the electoral crisis following the 1876 presidential election and led president rutherford b hayes to reduce the role of federal troops in the south 136 immediately the redeemers began evicting the carpetbaggers and quickly regained local control of southern politics in the name of white supremacy 137 138 african americans endured a period of heightened overt racism following reconstruction a time often considered the nadir of american race relations 139 140 a series of supreme court decisions including plessy v ferguson emptied the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments of their force allowing jim crow laws in the south to remain unchecked sundown towns in the midwest and segregation in communities across the country which would be reinforced in part by the policy of redlining later adopted by the federal home owners loan corporation 141 an explosion of technological advancement accompanied by the exploitation of cheap immigrant labor 142 led to rapid economic expansion during the gilded age of the late 19th century it continued into the early 20th when the united states already outpaced the economies of britain france and germany combined tycoons led the nation s expansion in the railroad petroleum and steel industries as the united states emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry 143 144 145 146 this fostered the amassing of enormous economic and political power by a few prominent industrialists largely through the formation of trusts and monopolies to prevent competition 147 these changes resulted in significant increases in economic inequality slum conditions and social unrest creating a fertile environment for labor unions to flourish and to a more limited extent socialist movements 148 149 150 this period eventually ended with the advent of the progressive era which was characterized by significant economic legislative and social reforms 151 152 pro american elements in hawaii overthrew the hawaiian monarchy the islands were annexed in 1898 that same year puerto rico the philippines and guam were ceded to the u s by spain after the latter s defeat in the spanish american war the philippines was granted full independence from the u s on july 4 1946 following world war ii puerto rico and guam have remained u s territories 153 american samoa was acquired by the united states in 1900 after the second samoan civil war 154 the u s virgin islands were purchased from denmark in 1917 after danish voters approved the sale in a 1916 referendum 155 world war i great depression and world war ii 1917 1945 main article history of the united states 1917 1945 u s marines raise the american flag atop mount suribachi during the battle of iwo jima 1945 this photo became one of the most honored images of world war ii the united states entered world war i alongside the allies in 1917 helping to turn the tide against the central powers 156 in 1920 a constitutional amendment granted nationwide women s suffrage 157 during the 1920s and 1930s radio for mass communication and early television transformed communications nationwide 158 the wall street crash of 1929 had triggered the great depression to which president franklin d roosevelt responded with the new deal plan of reform recovery and relief a series of unprecedented and sweeping recovery programs and employment relief projects combined with financial reforms and regulations 159 160 during the 1930s severe drought and dust storms caused or exacerbated by poor agricultural practices forced hundreds of thousands of displaced farming families often called okies because many originated from oklahoma to migrate from the great plains to california in search of subsistence 161 162 163 initially neutral during world war ii the u s began supplying war materiel to the allies of world war ii in march 1941 and entered the war in december after japan s attack on pearl harbor 164 agreeing to a europe first policy the u s concentrated its wartime efforts on japan s allies italy and germany until their final defeat in may 1945 the u s developed the first nuclear weapons and used them against the japanese cities of hiroshima and nagasaki in august 1945 which historians consider central to the end of world war ii in asia 165 166 the united states was one of the four policemen who met to plan the post war world alongside the united kingdom the soviet union and china 167 168 the u s emerged relatively unscathed from the war with even greater economic power and international political influence 169 cold war and social revolution 1945 1991 main articles history of the united states 1945 1964 history of the united states 1964 1980 and history of the united states 1980 1991 civil rights activists during the march on washington for jobs and freedom in washington d c in august 1963 the end of world war ii in 1945 left the u s and the soviet union as superpowers each with its own political military and economic sphere of influence geopolitical tensions between the two superpowers soon led to the cold war 170 171 172 the soviets development of their own atomic weapons led to a fierce nuclear arms race with america the u s implemented a policy of containment intended to limit the soviet union s sphere of influence engaged in regime change against governments perceived to be aligned with the soviets and prevailed in the space race which culminated with the first crewed moon landing in 1969 173 174 domestically the u s experienced drastic economic growth urbanization and population growth following world war ii 175 the civil rights movement emerged with martin luther king jr becoming a prominent leader in the early 1960s 176 the great society plan of president lyndon b johnson s administration resulted in groundbreaking and broad reaching laws policies and a constitutional amendment to counteract some of the worst effects of lingering institutional racism 177 the counterculture movement in the u s brought significant social changes including the liberalization of attitudes toward recreational drug use and sexuality 178 179 it also encouraged open defiance of the military draft leading to the end of conscription in 1973 180 and wide opposition to u s intervention in vietnam with the u s totally withdrawing in 1975 181 a societal shift in the roles of women was significantly responsible for the large increase in female paid labor participation starting in the 1970s and by 1985 the majority of american women aged 16 and older were employed 182 the fall of communism and the dissolution of the soviet union from 1989 to 1991 marked the end of the cold war and left the united states as the world s sole superpower 183 this cemented the united states global influence reinforcing the concept of the american century as the u s dominated international political cultural economic and military affairs 184 185 contemporary 1991 present main articles history of the united states 1991 2016 and history of the united states 2016 present the twin towers in lower manhattan during the september 11 attacks of 2001 the 1990s saw the longest recorded economic expansion in american history up to that time 186 a dramatic decline in u s crime rates and advances in technology throughout this decade technological innovations such as the world wide web the evolution of the pentium microprocessor in accordance with moore s law rechargeable lithium ion batteries the first gene therapy trial and cloning either emerged in the u s or were improved upon there in the 1990s the human genome project was launched while nasdaq became the first stock market in the united states to trade online 187 in the gulf war of 1991 an american led international coalition of states expelled an iraqi invasion force that had occupied neighboring kuwait 188 the september 11 attacks on the united states in 2001 by the pan islamist militant organization al qaeda led to the u s launching the war on terror and military interventions in afghanistan and iraq 189 the u s housing bubble culminated in 2007 with the great recession the largest economic contraction since the great depression 190 beginning in the 2010s and accelerating in the 2020s the united states has experienced increased political polarization 191 192 and significant democratic backsliding 193 194 the country s polarization was violently reflected in the january 2021 capitol attack 195 when a mob of insurrectionists 196 supporting president donald trump entered the u s capitol and sought to prevent the peaceful transfer of power 197 it was the first presidential refusal of the peaceful transfer of power 198 some scholars have described the united states as transitioning from a liberal democratic polity to a hybrid regime since 2025 199 the 2020s also saw china begin to challenge the united states s long standing role as the world s sole superpower 200 201 geography main article geography of the united states a topographic map of the united states although the united states is often cited as the third largest country by total area behind russia and canada e wikipedia ranks it fourth largest after russia canada and china because coastal and territorial waters are excluded from each country 13 202 in 2021 the united states had 8 of the earth s permanent meadows and pastures and 10 of its cropland 203 starting in the east the coastal plain of the atlantic seaboard gives way to inland forests and rolling hills in the piedmont plateau region 204 the appalachian mountains and the adirondack massif separate the east coast from the great lakes and the grasslands of the midwest 205 the mississippi river system the world s fourth longest river system runs predominantly north south through the center of the country the flat and fertile prairie of the great plains stretches to the west interrupted by a highland region in the southeast 205 the grand canyon in arizona the rocky mountains west of the great plains extend north to south across the country peaking at over 14 000 feet 4 300 m in colorado 206 the supervolcano underlying yellowstone national park in the rocky mountains the yellowstone caldera is the continent s largest volcanic feature 207 farther west are the rocky great basin and the chihuahuan sonoran and mojave deserts 208 in the northwest corner of arizona carved by the colorado river is the grand canyon a steep sided canyon and popular tourist destination 209 known for its overwhelming visual size and intricate colorful landscape the cascade and sierra nevada mountain ranges run close to the pacific coast the lowest and highest points in the contiguous united states are in the state of california 210 about 84 miles 135 km apart 211 alaska is a state in the northwestern regions of north america it is a semi exclave and separated from the contiguous united states at an elevation of 20 310 feet 6 190 5 m alaska s denali also called mount mckinley is the highest peak in the country and on the continent 212 active volcanoes in the u s are common throughout alaska s alexander and aleutian islands while hawaii has six active volcanoes including kilauea and mauna loa 213 located entirely outside north america the hawaiian archipelago consists of volcanic islands all physiographically and ethnologically part of the polynesian subregion of oceania 214 in addition to its total land area the united states has one of the world s largest marine exclusive economic zones spanning approximately 4 5 million square miles 11 7 million k...
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