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ises and the soteriologies were the same this sense of greater unity states sanderson came to be called hinduism web 5 according to nicholson already between the 12th and the 16th centuries certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the upanishads epics puranas and the schools known retrospectively as the six systems saddarsana of mainstream hindu philosophy 145 the tendency of a blurring of philosophical distinctions has also been noted by mikel burley 146 hacker called this inclusivism 133 and michaels speaks of the identificatory habit 8 lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct hindu identity in the interaction between muslims and hindus 147 and a process of mutual self definition with a contrasting muslim other 148 40 which started well before 1800 149 michaels notes as a counteraction to islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization two religious innovations developed in the hindu religions the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism s aints and sometimes militant sect leaders such as the marathi poet tukaram 1609 1649 and ramdas 1608 1681 articulated ideas in which they glorified hinduism and the past the brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites mahatmyas or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects 150 colonial views the notion and reports on hinduism as a single world religious tradition 151 were also popularised by 19th century proselytising missionaries and european indologists roles sometimes served by the same person who relied on texts preserved by brahmins priests for their information of indian religions and animist observations that the missionary orientalists presumed was hinduism 151 92 152 these reports influenced perceptions about hinduism scholars such as pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils note 17 while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that the vedas bhagavad gita manusmriti and such texts were the essence of hindu religiosity and in the modern association of hindu doctrine with the schools of vedanta in particular advaita vedanta as a paradigmatic example of hinduism s mystical nature 154 note 18 pennington while concurring that the study of hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era disagrees that hinduism is a colonial european era invention 155 he states that the shared theology common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as hindus is traceable to ancient times 155 note 19 hindu modernism and neo vedanta swami vivekananda was a key figure in introducing vedanta and yoga in europe and the united states 162 raising interfaith awareness and making hinduism a world religion 163 all of religion is contained in the vedanta that is in the three stages of the vedanta philosophy the dvaita vishishtâdvaita and advaita one comes after the other these are the three stages of spiritual growth in man each one is necessary this is the essential of religion the vedanta applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of india is hinduism swami vivekananda web 9 see also hindu reform movements see also orientalism and neo vedanta this inclusivism 164 was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries by hindu reform movements and neo vedanta 165 and has become characteristic of modern hinduism 133 beginning in the 19th century indian modernists re asserted hinduism as a major asset of indian civilisation 78 meanwhile purifying hinduism from its tantric elements 166 and elevating the vedic elements western stereotypes were reversed emphasising the universal aspects and introducing modern approaches of social problems 78 this approach had great appeal not only in india but also in the west 78 major representatives of hindu modernism 167 are ram mohan roy swami vivekananda sarvepalli radhakrishnan and mahatma gandhi 168 raja rammohan roy is known as the father of the hindu renaissance 169 he was a major influence on swami vivekananda who according to flood was a figure of great importance in the development of a modern hindu self understanding and in formulating the west s view of hinduism 170 central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings that all human beings can achieve union with this innate divinity 167 and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony 167 according to vivekananda there is an essential unity to hinduism which underlies the diversity of its many forms 167 according to flood vivekananda s vision of hinduism is one generally accepted by most english speaking middle class hindus today 171 sarvepalli radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with hinduism presenting hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience 172 this global hinduism 173 has a worldwide appeal transcending national boundaries 173 and according to flood becoming a world religion alongside christianity islam and buddhism 173 both for the hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non western cultures and religions 173 it emphasises universal spiritual values such as social justice peace and the spiritual transformation of humanity 173 it has developed partly due to re enculturation 174 or the pizza effect 174 in which elements of hindu culture have been exported to the west gaining popularity there and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in india 174 this globalisation of hindu culture brought to the west teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies and which in turn have become an important cultural force in india their place of origin 175 modern india and the world the hare krishna group at the esplanadi park in helsinki finland the scope of hinduism is increasing in the other parts of the world due to cultural influences such as yoga organisations such as the hare krishna movement and iskcon as well as the migration of indian hindus 176 177 main traditions denominations further information hindu denominations a ganesha centric panchayatana five deities from the smarta tradition ganesha centre with shiva top left parvati top right vishnu bottom left and surya bottom right all these deities also have separate sects dedicated to them hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition 16 four major denominations are however used in scholarly studies shaivism shaktism smartism and vaishnavism 81 82 17 18 these denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped the traditions and the soteriological outlook 178 the denominations of hinduism states lipner are unlike those found in major religions of the world because hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one and he suggests the term hindu polycentrism 179 there are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within hinduism 180 estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of hinduism according to a 2020 estimate by the world religion database wrd hosted at boston university s institute on culture religion and world affairs cura the vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 399 million hindus followed by shaivism with 385 million hindus shaktism with 305 million hindus and other traditions including neo hinduism and reform hinduism with 25 million hindus 181 in contrast according to jones and ryan shaivism is the largest tradition of hinduism 182 note 20 vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships vishnu note 21 and his avatars particularly krishna and rama 184 the adherents of this sect are generally non ascetic monastic oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by intimate loving joyous playful krishna and other vishnu avatars 178 these practices sometimes include community dancing singing of kirtans and bhajans with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers 185 temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in vaishnavism 186 the bhagavad gita and the ramayana along with vishnu oriented puranas provide its theistic foundations 187 shaivism is the tradition that focuses on shiva shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism and it has several sub schools 178 their practices include bhakti style devotionalism yet their beliefs lean towards nondual monistic schools of hinduism such as advaita and raja yoga 188 185 some shaivas worship in temples while others emphasise yoga striving to be one with shiva within 189 avatars are uncommon and some shaivas visualise god as half male half female as a fusion of the male and female principles ardhanarishvara shaivism is related to shaktism wherein shakti is seen as spouse of shiva 188 community celebrations include festivals and participation with vaishnavas in pilgrimages such as the kumbh mela 190 shaivism has been more commonly practised in the himalayan north from kashmir to nepal and in south india 191 shaktism focuses on goddess worship of shakti or devi as cosmic mother 178 and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of india such as assam and bengal devi is depicted as in gentler forms like parvati the consort of shiva or as fierce warrior goddesses like kali and durga followers of shaktism recognise shakti as the power that underlies the male principle shaktism is also associated with tantra practices 192 community celebrations include festivals some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies 193 smartism centers its worship simultaneously on all the major hindu deities shiva vishnu shakti ganesha surya and skanda 194 the smarta tradition developed during the early classical period of hinduism around the beginning of the common era when hinduism emerged from the interaction between brahmanism and local traditions 195 196 the smarta tradition is aligned with advaita vedanta and regards adi shankara as its founder or reformer who considered worship of god with attributes saguna brahman as a journey towards ultimately realising god without attributes nirguna brahman atman self knowledge 197 198 the term smartism is derived from smriti texts of hinduism meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts 188 199 this hindu sect practices a philosophical jnana yoga scriptural studies reflection meditative path seeking an understanding of self s oneness with god 188 200 ethnicities prambanan hindu temple complex built in the 9th century java indonesia puja at pura besakih one of the most significant balinese hinduism temples see also hinduism in south asia southeast asia bali java vietnam and west hinduism is traditionally a multi or polyethnic religion on the indian subcontinent it is widespread among many indo aryan dravidian and other south asian ethnic groups 201 for example the meitei people tibeto burman ethnicity in the northeastern indian state manipur 202 in addition in antiquity and the middle ages hinduism was the state religion in many indianized kingdoms of asia the greater india from afghanistan kabul in the west and including almost all of southeast asia in the east cambodia vietnam indonesia partly philippines and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by buddhism and islam 203 204 except several still hindu minor austronesian ethnic groups such as the balinese 29 and tenggerese people 205 in indonesia and the chams in vietnam 206 also a small community of the afghan pashtuns who migrated to india after partition remain committed to hinduism 207 the indo aryan kalash people in pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which is closely related to ancient indo iranian religion and resembles the ancient vedic religion 208 while it has been related to greek religion due to an origin narrative which says that the kalash descend from alexander the great s greek soldiers the kalash speak an indo aryan language and their religion is closer to hinduism than to the religion of alexander s army 209 there are many new ethnic ghanaian hindus in ghana who have converted to hinduism due to the works of swami ghanananda saraswati and hindu monastery of africa 210 from the beginning of the 20th century by the forces of baba premananda bharati 1858 1914 swami vivekananda a c bhaktivedanta swami prabhupada and other missionaries hinduism gained a certain distribution among the western peoples 211 scriptures main article list of hindu texts see also śāstra pramāṇam the rigveda is the first among four vedas note 22 and is one of the oldest religious texts this rigveda manuscript is in sanskrit the ancient scriptures of hinduism are initially in vedic sanskrit and later in classical sanskrit these texts are classified into two śruti and smṛti shruti is apauruṣeyā lit not made of a man but revealed by the rishis lit seers and regarded as having the highest authority while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority 212 they are the two highest sources of dharma the other two being śiṣṭa āchāra sadāchara lit conduct of noble people and finally ātma tuṣṭi lit what is pleasing to oneself note 23 hindu scriptures were composed memorised and transmitted verbally across generations for many centuries before they were written down 213 214 shruti lit that which is heard 215 primarily refers to the vedas which form the earliest record of the hindu scriptures and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages rishis 216 there are four vedas rigveda samaveda yajurveda and atharvaveda each veda has been subclassified into four major text types the samhitas mantras and benedictions the aranyakas text on rituals ceremonies sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices the brahmanas commentaries on rituals ceremonies and sacrifices and the upanishads text discussing meditation philosophy and spiritual knowledge 217 218 219 220 the first two parts of the vedas were subsequently called the karmakāṇḍa ritualistic portion while the last two form the jñānakāṇḍa knowledge portion discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings 221 222 223 224 the upanishads are the foundation of hindu philosophical thought and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions 225 226 160 of the shrutis vedic corpus the upanishads alone are widely influential among hindus considered scriptures par excellence of hinduism and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions 225 158 indian philosopher sarvepalli radhakrishnan states that the upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance 227 there are 108 muktikā upa...
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