Meta tags:
Headings (most frequently used words):
and, english, syntax, language, varieties, old, of, modern, asia, phrases, verbs, verb, word, contents, classification, history, geographical, distribution, dialects, accents, phonology, orthography, grammar, vocabulary, see, also, references, external, links, proto, germanic, to, influence, norse, middle, early, spread, three, circles, model, pluricentric, as, global, britain, ireland, north, america, australia, new, zealand, southeast, africa, the, caribbean, south, non, native, consonants, vowels, phonotactics, stress, rhythm, intonation, regional, variation, nouns, noun, formation, processes, origins, loans, in, other, languages, bibliography, adjectives, determiners, pronouns, case, person, prepositions, tense, aspect, mood, phrasal, adverbs, basic, constituent, order, clause, auxiliary, constructions, questions, discourse, level,
Text of the page (most frequently used words):
the (1177), #english (684), and (634), #language (268), from (169), are (151), with (150), isbn (136), 978 (132), for (124), that (110), 2006 (103), languages (88), verb (72), original (71), archived (69), old (68), university (68), new (66), american (66), press (66), most (66), has (64), such (63), which (62), retrieved (61), dialects (60), other (59), have (59), doi (58), germanic (55), example (55), official (54), they (54), standard (53), world (52), 2002 (52), use (51), varieties (51), used (51), word (51), words (50), 044854 (50), not (49), 2015 (49), many (48), international (47), south (47), cambridge (47), vowel (46), vowels (45), also (44), was (43), modern (43), form (41), can (41), middle (40), but (40), spoken (40), speakers (40), german (39), linguistics (39), verbs (39), more (38), some (38), first (37), between (37), west (37), yes (37), british (36), united (36), pdf (36), one (36), noun (36), non (35), where (35), its (35), case (35), dictionary (34), oxford (34), north (34), forms (34), accents (34), huddleston (34), history (33), accent (33), countries (32), vocabulary (32), only (32), pullum (32), subject (31), native (31), 2010 (31), this (30), into (30), person (30), french (29), than (29), zealand (29), encyclopedia (29), frisian (29), trudgill (29), main (29), nouns (29), pronouns (29), states (28), man (28), often (28), auxiliary (28), 1016 (27), 2012 (27), there (27), ireland (26), their (26), grammar (26), pronunciation (26), singular (26), century (25), anglo (25), saxon (25), early (25), latin (25), england (25), 1982 (25), eds (25), second (25), you (24), east (24), 521 (24), phrases (24), been (24), through (24), clause (24), articles (23), northern (23), africa (23), african (23), pronounced (23), april (23), influence (23), order (23), were (23), may (22), february (22), southern (22), norse (22), spelling (22), december (22), 1992 (22), sentence (22), speaking (21), european (21), dialect (21), low (21), had (21), syllable (21), written (20), australia (20), australian (20), 2011 (20), march (20), 2007 (20), including (20), all (19), 2014 (19), islands (19), 1999 (19), well (19), hogg (19), crystal (19), both (19), phrase (19), plural (19), number (18), majority (18), third (18), variation (18), country (18), phonology (18), john (18), 2008 (18), per (18), cent (18), like (18), object (17), canada (17), based (17), changes (17), norman (17), around (17), 2013 (17), grammatical (17), when (17), clauses (17), class (17), him (17), constructions (17), national (16), canadian (16), shift (16), hannah (16), 2009 (16), david (16), spread (16), syntax (16), while (16), during (16), adjectives (16), developed (16), statistics (15), using (15), historical (15), population (15), regional (15), present (15), high (15), scots (15), introduction (15), november (15), routledge (15), 2019 (15), them (15), known (15), wikipedia (14), 2016 (14), stress (14), features (14), consonant (14), dutch (14), linguistic (14), vol (14), 1994 (14), august (14), global (14), what (14), two (14), these (14), who (14), being (14), about (13), 2024 (13), india (13), central (13), irish (13), london (13), consonants (13), alphabet (13), richard (13), 2nd (13), romaine (13), lass (13), könig (13), phonetic (13), end (13), each (13), different (13), system (13), time (13), pronoun (13), found (13), woman (13), inflected (13), rhotic (13), syllables (13), long (12), asia (12), great (12), sound (12), how (12), 1017 (12), leech (12), 2003 (12), level (12), 2004 (12), september (12), status (12), today (12), widely (12), see (12), become (12), million (12), include (12), letters (12), kingdom (11), writing (11), indo (11), strong (11), proto (11), speech (11), britain (11), before (11), change (11), bailey (11), any (11), october (11), handbook (11), cases (11), 1996 (11), phonemes (11), possessive (11), speak (11), variety (11), over (11), past (11), three (11), after (11), local (11), january (10), july (10), short (10), nations (10), preterite (10), general (10), caribbean (10), scotland (10), 2022 (10), thomas (10), studies (10), another (10), scientific (10), does (10), denison (10), foreign (10), did (10), education (10), still (10), loanwords (10), particularly (10), without (10), constituent (10), girl (10), her (10), meaning (10), those (10), inflectional (10), voiceless (10), toggle (9), june (9), 2023 (9), plain (9), 2021 (9), lingua (9), webster (9), contemporary (9), franconian (9), midlands (9), rhoticity (9), clusters (9), 2025 (9), working (9), peter (9), görlach (9), since (9), 2018 (9), 2001 (9), discourse (9), function (9), position (9), association (9), period (9), objective (9), article (9), common (9), relative (9), among (9), very (9), sentences (9), within (9), either (9), preposition (9), questions (9), prepositional (9), follows (9), tense (9), subordinate (9), prepositions (9), determiners (9), few (9), stressed (9), regions (9), table (8), text (8), organization (8), page (8), containing (8), links (8), ipa (8), media (8), territories (8), law (8), sea (8), danish (8), york (8), america (8), phonological (8), wells (8), blackwell (8), know (8), manfred (8), science (8), situation (8), communication (8), aviation (8), future (8), phrasal (8), brinton (8), classes (8), subjective (8), government (8), instead (8), single (8), generally (8), stung (8), bee (8), she (8), even (8), however (8), differences (8), suffix (8), traditionally (8), uses (8), run (8), rather (8), following (8), merger (8), possibly (8), unstressed (8), stop (8), though (8), lower (8), circle (8), topic (7), code (7), contact (7), terms (7), agree (7), sources (7), iso (7), data (7), functions (7), historically (7), according (7), creole (7), franca (7), related (7), indian (7), open (7), orthography (7), 2017 (7), guide (7), michigan (7), 533872 (7), patrick (7), census (7), s2cid (7), mcmahon (7), englishes (7), chapter (7), take (7), journal (7), van (7), 415 (7), 2003b (7), divided (7), scottish (7), called (7), personal (7), independent (7), support (7), although (7), source (7), get (7), frequently (7), formal (7), information (7), formation (7), longer (7), will (7), includes (7), boy (7), syntactic (7), similar (7), because (7), construction (7), complex (7), participle (7), lexical (7), aspect (7), composed (7), marked (7), irregular (7), considered (7), several (7), lenis (7), fortis (7), aave (7), now (7), subsection (7), view (6), pages (6), spanish (6), ethnologue (6), europe (6), philippines (6), list (6), commonwealth (6), further (6), learner (6), shorter (6), book (6), dictionaries (6), pronunciations (6), vernacular (6), social (6), received (6), cockney (6), continent (6), edinburgh (6), 139 (6), always (6), why (6), robert (6), gruyter (6), geoffrey (6), reading (6), gender (6), community (6), 2020 (6), speaker (6), william (6), mair (6), morphology (6), 2000 (6), family (6), proficiency (6), worldwide (6), graddol (6), literature (6), published (6), structure (6), finite (6), inflection (6), quality (6), contract (6), represent (6), part (6), lexicon (6), especially (6), primarily (6), originally (6), greek (6), informal (6), registers (6), derived (6), specific (6), passive (6), complement (6), formed (6), question (6), inversion (6), out (6), dog (6), least (6), marking (6), marks (6), almost (6), infinitive (6), important (6), primary (6), share (6), traits (6), distinction (6), largely (6), beginning (6), sounds (6), rarely (6), organisations (6), region (6), americans (6), broadcasting (6), inner (6), policy (5), additional (5), wikidata (5), statements (5), 639 (5), move (5), good (5), resources (5), oceania (5), nigeria (5), jamaica (5), advanced (5), learners (5), collins (5), newfoundland (5), weak (5), ingvaeonic (5), upper (5), southeast (5), learning (5), comparison (5), basic (5), atlantic (5), pacific (5), wales (5), estuary (5), dropping (5), back (5), diphthongs (5), close (5), 4051 (5), centuries (5), 5th (5), 210 (5), schneider (5), 114 (5), day (5), svartvik (5), 8th (5), markers (5), bbc (5), 1997 (5), matthew (5), mountford (5), read (5), 3rd (5), 226 (5), aarts (5), 290 (5), roger (5), labov (5), patterns (5), der (5), kachru (5), maritime (5), civil (5), hughes (5), gottlieb (5), 196 (5), origins (5), 1989 (5), 316 (5), special (5), elements (5), daniels (5), role (5), ammon (5), account (5), times (5), nominative (5), 118 (5), nigerian (5), state (5), less (5), svo (5), then (5), borrowed (5), mostly (5), others (5), typically (5), technical (5), throughout (5), child (5), processes (5), scholars (5), previously (5), help (5), themselves (5), way (5), copula (5), going (5), introduced (5), negation (5), occur (5), same (5), mood (5), takes (5), adverbs (5), retain (5), his (5), dependent (5), sometimes (5), set (5), becoming (5), degree (5), conjunctions (5), voiced (5), fricative (5), stops (5), shortened (5), approximant (5), symbols (5), jamaican (5), continuum (5), emerged (5), influenced (5), norms (5), prestige (5), understand (5), publishing (5), diplomacy (5), adopted (5), billion (5), add (4), contents (4), search (4), categories (4), names (4), description (4), anglic (4), index (4), shown (4), singapore (4), hong (4), kong (4), island (4), americas (4), saint (4), empire (4), macmillan (4), online (4), macquarie (4), johnson (4), gutnish (4), bavarian (4), alemannic (4), pennsylvania (4), western (4), eastern (4), black (4), city (4), quebec (4), union (4), yorkshire (4), fronting (4), front (4), northumbrian (4), reform (4), reduced (4), your (4), isles (4), wiley (4), toon (4), 1988 (4), white (4), edgar (4), 156 (4), 149 (4), complete (4), 259 (4), 7486 (4), survey (4), 326 (4), 195 (4), suzanne (4), algeo (4), earliest (4), phonetics (4), richter (4), 159 (4), became (4), research (4), key (4), 1993 (4), mcarthur (4), companion (4), mazrui (4), 1998 (4), current (4), 6425 (4), bas (4), study (4), jstor (4), need (4), evolved (4), kastovsky (4), next (4), campbell (4), michael (4), denning (4), systems (4), 2003a (4), former (4), angles (4), saxons (4), roman (4), geographical (4), brutt (4), griffler (4), comparative (4), baugh (4), pluricentric (4), society (4), origin (4), find (4), traditional (4), entry (4), books (4), later (4), optional (4), home (4), indigenous (4), made (4), final (4), act (4), television (4), 11th (4), means (4), across (4), economic (4), best (4), began (4), chaucer (4), able (4), movement (4), stems (4), expressing (4), write (4), readily (4), core (4), turn (4), highly (4), productive (4), 312 (4), appears (4), process (4), much (4), active (4), result (4), 20th (4), various (4), create (4), constituents (4), particular (4), could (4), tends (4), precedes (4), subjects (4), cat (4), fronted (4), interrogative (4), whom (4), adverb (4), enclitic (4), thus (4), usually (4), rules (4), whereas (4), contrast (4), major (4), below (4), represented (4), centre (4), modify (4), described (4), commonly (4), 249 (4), intonation (4), separate (4), ran (4), perfect (4), regular (4), except (4), differ (4), range (4), feature (4), reflexive (4), distinguishes (4), accusative (4), modifiers (4), happy (4), red (4), length (4), det (4), spoke (4), spellings (4), instruction (4), learn (4), 238 (4), respectively (4), dialectal (4), glottal (4), affecting (4), reduction (4), affected (4), full (4), light (4), publications (4), fully (4), speaks (4), linguists (4), distinct (4), along (4), parts (4), people (4), member (4), endings (4), poem (4), hide (4), sidebar (4), 313 (3), available (3), under (3), commons (3), last (3), sister (3), project (3), cs1 (3), potentially (3), dated (3), cultural (3), analytic (3), textbooks (3), samoa (3), fiji (3), malta (3), pakistan (3), trinidad (3), tobago (3), cayman (3), barbados (3), lists (3), merriam (3), longman (3), chambers (3), extinct (3), nasal (3), northwest (3), philology (3), mainland (3), swedish (3), icelandic (3), norwegian (3), broad (3), variants (3), groups (3), flemish (3), afrikaans (3), föhr (3), fingallian (3), california (3), older (3), ulster (3), birmingham (3), liverpool (3), mercian (3), braille (3), 110 (3), overview (3), 279 (3), ronald (3), sociolinguistics (3), traces (3), viking (3), 340 (3), 4th (3), 250 (3), rural (3), sweet (3), henry (3), tongue (3), stiles (3), series (3), 7th (3), zur (3), report (3), culture (3), total (3), provinces (3), smith (3), analysis (3), 285 (3), sailaja (3), routes (3), contexts (3), robinson (3), roach (3), migration (3), 134 (3), peters (3), usage (3), rodney (3), 006 (3), 163 (3), 2006a (3), northrup (3), agency (3), records (3), nation (3), townend (3), mugglestone (3), miller (3), mesthrie (3), our (3), children (3), group (3), maclagan (3), margaret (3), 164 (3), 151 (3), 1966 (3), 1111 (3), lawton (3), punctuation (3), 1476 (3), 324 (3), 1007 (3), 168 (3), ekkehard (3), auwera (3), 202 (3), jespersen (3), 123 (3), 103 (3), points (3), air (3), bureau (3), designated (3), shall (3), 311 (3), 108 (3), dieter (3), 109 (3), 198 (3), 409 (3), bammesberger (3), place (3), 1066 (3), cohesion (3), council (3), mean (3), evolution (3), giegerich (3), eurobarometer (3), commission (3), donoghue (3), deumert (3), 129 (3), keith (3), kessler (3), leben (3), bright (3), 261 (3), post (3), colonies (3), mees (3), 1981 (3), phonemic (3), shakespeare (3), works (3), 177 (3), 117 (3), benjamins (3), charles (3), boberg (3), blake (3), bazelmans (3), ethnic (3), 321 (3), albert (3), cable (3), 275 (3), 610 (3), ulrich (3), literary (3), proposals (3), 197 (3), little (3), lexis (3), finkenstaedt (3), wolff (3), 1973 (3), 124 (3), 121 (3), dummy (3), 167 (3), 274 (3), 113 (3), required (3), 148 (3), mark (3), washington (3), 115 (3), 165 (3), tagalog (3), street (3), mouton (3), atlas (3), 141 (3), sign (3), recognised (3), québec (3), facto (3), 130 (3), simple (3), negative (3), increasing (3), baker (3), bilingual (3), bible (3), 100 (3), 332 (3), beowulf (3), possible (3), 325 (3), top (3), references (3), political (3), large (3), films (3), influences (3), indicating (3), script (3), programmes (3), free (3), loans (3), equivalent (3), cake (3), give (3), having (3), 315 (3), proper (3), none (3), given (3), pronouncing (3), roots (3), compound (3), quickly (3), lack (3), estimate (3), limited (3), achieved (3), event (3), focus (3), established (3), prominent (3), comment (3), require (3), appear (3), occurs (3), saw (3), show (3), becomes (3), omitted (3), oblique (3), seen (3), above (3), addition (3), shows (3), letter (3), gave (3), indirect (3), relations (3), combination (3), progressive (3), modal (3), mat (3), together (3), consider (3), verbal (3), distinctions (3), running (3), tenses (3), stem (3), loved (3), gerund (3), love (3), six (3), depending (3), agreement (3), followed (3), school (3), refer (3), already (3), theirs (3), yours (3), exist (3), determiner (3), sets (3), animate (3), indefinite (3), definite (3), superlative (3), periphrastic (3), slender (3), characteristics (3), specify (3), men (3), wife (3), follow (3), possession (3), genitive (3), clear (3), count (3), mass (3), strongly (3), readers (3), nonetheless (3), greatly (3), making (3), correspondence (3), 9th (3), inscriptions (3), runes (3), four (3), vary (3), whether (3), pronounce (3), dental (3), fricatives (3), alveolar (3), standards (3), own (3), trap (3), split (3), bath (3), bother (3), rhythm (3), lost (3), here (3), obstruents (3), phonemically (3), opposed (3), sonorants (3), dark (3), pin (3), included (3), inventory (3), simplified (3), educated (3), public (3), entertainment (3), closely (3), minority (3), communicate (3), 19th (3), stigmatised (3), shared (3), communities (3), outside (3), recent (3), dominant (3), associated (3), war (3), due (3), led (3), explains (3), largest (3), trade (3), monolingual (3), significant (3), model (3), classification (3), circles (3), defined (3), distribution (3), increasingly (3), named (3), late (3), danes (3), runic (3), peoples (3), tools (3), basa (3), legal (2), contacts (2), privacy (2), apply (2), wikimedia (2), 2026 (2), hidden (2), needing (2), citations (2), 1100 (2), 1500 (2), 450 (2), citing (2), linguasphere (2), dates (2), protected (2), timed (2), francas (2), republic (2), authority (2), control (2), wikifunctions (2), wikiversity (2), wikiquote (2), wiktionary (2), projects (2), italics (2), solomon (2), palau (2), gibraltar (2), puerto (2), rico (2), zimbabwe (2), uganda (2), sudan (2), sierra (2), leone (2), rwanda (2), namibia (2), malawi (2), liberia (2), kenya (2), ghana (2), gambia (2), cameroon (2), norfolk (2), jersey (2), isle (2), virgin (2), georgia (2), sint (2), saba (2), falkland (2), bermuda (2), belize (2), bahamas (2), antigua (2), barbuda (2), urban (2), gage (2), random (2), house (2), encarta (2), penguin (2), imperial (2), 1828 (2), 1755 (2), etymological (2), left (2), indicate (2), ablaut (2), spirant (2), verner (2), grimm (2), weser (2), rhine (2), gothic (2), jutlandic (2), insular (2), shetland (2), nynorsk (2), bokmål (2), sense (2), highest (2), swiss (2), prussian (2), hessian (2), limburgish (2), yiddish (2), namibian (2), creoles (2), pomeranian (2), gronings (2), clay (2), amrum (2), yola (2), purism (2), englishisation (2), antarctica (2), malaysia (2), cultivated (2), aboriginal (2), bay (2), elite (2), latino (2), chicano (2), cajun (2), outer (2), boston (2), midland (2), ottawa (2), valley (2), multicultural (2), lunenburg (2), dublin (2), geordie (2), northumbria (2), manchester (2), scouse (2), lancashire (2), stopping (2), flapping (2), kentish (2), library (2), external (2), wolfram (2), 341 (2), 333 (2), wojcik (2), controlled (2), 142 (2), 278 (2), beyond (2), 1093 (2), 001 (2), 0001 (2), wardhaugh (2), 6th (2), fifth (2), seventh (2), boydell (2), brewer (2), frisians (2), age (2), versloot (2), jean (2), arnold (2), 631 (2), trask (2), kaufman (2), thomason (2), erik (2), 1515 (2), swan (2), palgrave (2), des (2), province (2), quickstats (2), mother (2), counts (2), shaywitz (2), schönweitz (2), postvocalic (2), schiffrin (2), ryan (2), rubino (2), 323 (2), rowicka (2), 194 (2), multilingual (2), educational (2), 584 (2), 1776 (2), 002 (2), closest (2), relatives (2), ingo (2), rights (2), phillipson (2), challenging (2), payne (2), 43146 (2), 2006b (2), office (2), dwyer (2), broadview (2), structures (2), 137 (2), ks207ni (2), neijt (2), müller (2), 273 (2), theory (2), conflicts (2), 105 (2), 180 (2), 218 (2), mufwene (2), 613 (2), rationale (2), montgomery (2), alive (2), rajend (2), langsci (2), 594 (2), sciences (2), meierkord (2), 171 (2), simon (2), mcguinness (2), mccrum (2), macneil (2), cran (2), tom (2), chicago (2), power (2), christian (2), standardization (2), macmahon (2), 382 (2), kirkpatrick (2), andy (2), 203 (2), lim (2), ansaldo (2), esperanto (2), levine (2), crockett (2), 204 (2), 280 (2), 251 (2), lawler (2), 291 (2), 186 (2), lanham (2), 352 (2), politics (2), 1972 (2), department (2), 178 (2), johan (2), descriptions (2), 28079 (2), otto (2), jambor (2), paul (2), imperialism (2), imo (2), marine (2), navigation (2), demonstrate (2), serving (2), arthur (2), news (2), nevalainen (2), tieken (2), boon (2), ostade (2), 271 (2), 199 (2), 270 (2), fischer (2), wurff (2), semantics (2), alfred (2), hickey (2), harbert (2), halliday (2), hasan (2), 1976 (2), 582 (2), greenbaum (2), nelson (2), green (2), leith (2), swann (2), julia (2), changing (2), 206 (2), gordon (2), hay (2), gordin (2), 1991 (2), gneuss (2), flemming (2), size (2), eagleson (2), durrell (2), 1002 (2), dixon (2), 133 (2), brett (2), dehaene (2), human (2), voice (2), death (2), cruttenden (2), conrad (2), andrew (2), rubal (2), lopez (2), connell (2), cohen (2), myres (2), 1936 (2), jutes (2), settlements (2), clarendon (2), collingwood (2), george (2), clark (2), asprey (2), cercignani (2), cassidy (2), carr (2), philip (2), honeybone (2), issues (2), 153 (2), 1959 (2), burridge (2), 132 (2), 690 (2), 272 (2), toller (2), 1921 (2), bosworth (2), joseph (2), 154 (2), 05553 (2), chol9780521264754 (2), 003 (2), blench (2), spriggs (2), 286 (2), archaeological (2), bermúdez (2), otero (2), handbooks (2), medieval (2), antiquity (2), amsterdam (2), 338 (2), barry (2), bao (2), 380 (2), 377 (2), 255 (2), relationship (2), 046 (2), annamalai (2), 319 (2), alcaraz (2), ariza (2), navarro (2), medicine (2), aitken (2), 1979 (2), 550 (2), abercrombie (2), haegeman (2), bibliography (2), 499 (2), percent (2), recorded (2), burnley (2), 127 (2), romance (2), 265 (2), ask (2), proportion (2), 120 (2), 1370 (2), 537 (2), 211 (2), 208 (2), 426 (2), oliver (2), 182 (2), 173 (2), 185 (2), 126 (2), 157 (2), 158 (2), duration (2), pattern (2), 138 (2), 116 (2), 256 (2), 260 (2), bautista (2), lourdes (2), 233 (2), switching (2), 209 (2), 162 (2), pure (2), 300 (2), reference (2), ontario (2), ash (2), 119 (2), 125 (2), 107 (2), reeve (2), development (2), transition (2), factbook (2), mandatory (2), note (2), acquired (2), welsh (2), 160 (2), constitution (2), publisher (2), equal (2), 131 (2), 122 (2), 106 (2), regularisation (2), nineteenth (2), until (2), 1999a (2), wycliffe (2), louisiana (2), perceived (2), canterbury (2), tales (2), 111 (2), effects (2), conquest (2), ormulum (2), 214 (2), 191 (2), 320 (2), 284 (2), 1951 (2), translated (2), roy (2), establish (2), term (2), should (2), entity (2), 200 (2), knowing (2), ideas (2), describing (2), chinese (2), japanese (2), entered (2), colonisation (2), egg (2), skirt (2), sky (2), resulted (2), latinate (2), stages (2), remain (2), frequent (2), constructed (2), difficult (2), originated (2), nato (2), acronyms (2), existing (2), compounding (2), actual (2), texts (2), analyses (2), consists (2), 170 (2), 000 (2), 220 (2), half (2), extremely (2), etc (2), deictic (2), fact (2), narrated (2), towards (2), said (2), idiomatic (2), marker (2), emphasis (2), characteristic (2), taking (2), item (2), effect (2), promoted (2), demoted (2), despite (2), whose (2), argument (2), allow (2), don (2), serves (2), negated (2), hence (2), produce (2), must (2), expression (2), heads (2), bone (2), built (2), arguments (2), think (2), lying (2), headed (2), placed (2), double (2), jane (2), masculine (2), bites (2), sat (2), manner (2), adjective (2), adverbial (2), examples (2), restricted (2), simply (2), grammarians (2), syntactically (2), employment (2), leave (2), subjunctive (2), every (2), imperative (2), 283 (2), moods (2), would (2), might (2), expressed (2), near (2), unmarked (2), 277 (2), taken (2), secondary (2), conjugation (2), aspects (2), wide (2), entities (2), introducing (2), grammars (2), defining (2), mentioned (2), assumed (2), identical (2), himself (2), herself (2), yourselves (2), 1st (2), itself (2), themself (2), yourself (2), mine (2), 262 (2), innovative (2), hiberno (2), persons (2), stand (2), alone (2), chair (2), entirely (2), 18th (2), distinguishing (2), transitive (2), otherwise (2), head (2), smaller (2), regarding (2), tendency (2), better (2), quantifiers (2), specifiers (2), tall (2), regardless (2), unit (2), entire (2), president (2), husband (2), apostrophe (2), fish (2), feet (2), foot (2), bread (2), abstract (2), committee (2), conj (2), seven (2), typical (2), pairs (2), similarly (2), rich (2), meaningful (2), relationships (2), fluent (2), difficulties (2), 239 (2), silent (2), stay (2), boat (2), digraphs (2), initial (2), soft (2), 235 (2), arisen (2), reforms (2), overwhelming (2), distinguished (2), merge (2), coda (2), fewer (2), contrasts (2), velar (2), labiodental (2), needed (2), 231 (2), yod (2), whine (2), wine (2), changed (2), chain (2), bre (2), 227 (2), father (2), lot (2), cloth (2), caught (2), cot (2), instance (2), distinguish (2), versus (2), ɜːr (2), trakt (2), start (2), onsets (2), codas (2), articulation (2), phonotactics (2), positions (2), realised (2), phonetically (2), noticeably (2), save (2), distinctive (2), deal (2), lax (2), monophthongs (2), syllabic (2), lateral (2), nip (2), pʰɪn (2), nɪˑb̥ (2), nib (2), pre (2), aspirated (2), mutual (2), mainly (2), contains (2), introductory (2), replacement (2), styles (2), colonial (2), areas (2), coasts (2), 150 (2), sae (2), norm (2), intrusive (2), documents (2), business (2), rule (2), vast (2), lesser (2), raised (2), higher (2), neighbouring (2), likely (2), africans (2), slaves (2), homogeneous (2), broken (2), recognise (2), replacing (2), actually (2), comprises (2), gaelic (2), relatively (2), mixing (2), notion (2), variability (2), dominates (2), area (2), russell (2), emery (2), surrounding (2), preserve (2), talk (2), decades (2), division (2), occupation (2), archaic (2), yam (2), attrition (2), lines (2), adopt (2), life (2), heard (2), remains (2), prestigious (2), caused (2), shifted (2), associating (2), continue (2), koiné (2), parity (2), natural (2), taught (2), reasons (2), ones (2), respondents (2), conversation (2), continues (2), organisation (2), asean (2), members (2), moderate (2), māori (2), federal (2), immigrants (2), listeners (2), broadcasters (2), expanding (2), schools (2), learned (2)
Text of the page (random words):
a in the 21st century english is more widely spoken and written than any other language in history 63 as modern english developed explicit norms for standard usage were published and spread through official media such as public education and state sponsored publications in 1755 samuel johnson published his dictionary of the english language which introduced standard spellings of words and usage norms in 1828 noah webster published the american dictionary of the english language to establish a norm for speaking and writing american english independent of the british standard within britain non standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised leading to the rapid spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes 64 in modern english the loss of grammatical case is almost complete it is now found only in pronouns such as he and him she and her who and whom and subject verb object word order is largely fixed 64 some changes such as the use of do support have become universalised earlier english did not use the word do as a general auxiliary as modern english does at first it was used only in question constructions and even then it was not obligatory 65 now do support with the verb have is becoming increasingly standardised the use of progressive forms ending in ing appears to be spreading to new constructions and forms such as had been being built are becoming more common regularisation of irregular forms also continues slowly e g dreamed instead of dreamt and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common e g more polite instead of politer british english is also undergoing change under the influence of american english fuelled by the strong presence of american english in the media 66 67 68 geographical distribution see also list of countries and territories where english is an official language list of countries by english speaking population and english speaking world majority native language co official and majority native language official but minority native language secondary language spoken as a second language by more than 20 per cent of the population de facto working language of government language of instruction in education etc 3 ef english proficiency index 2019 in europe 69 very high 63 07 70 27 high 58 26 61 86 moderate 52 50 57 38 low 48 69 52 39 very low 40 87 48 19 not included in report as of 2016 update 400 million people spoke english as their first language and 1 1 billion spoke it as a second language 70 english is the largest language by number of speakers spoken by communities on every continent 71 estimates of second language and foreign language speakers vary greatly depending on how proficiency is defined ranging from 470 million to more than 1 billion 7 in 2003 david crystal estimated that non native speakers outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of three to one 72 three circles model braj kachru has categorised countries into the three circles of english model according to how the language historically spread in each country how it is acquired by the population and the range of uses it has there with a country s classification being able to change over time 73 74 inner circle countries have large communities of native english speakers these include the united kingdom the united states australia canada ireland and new zealand where the majority speaks english as well as south africa where a significant minority speaks english the countries with the most native english speakers are in descending order the united states at least 231 million 75 the united kingdom 60 million 76 77 78 canada 19 million 79 australia at least 17 million 80 south africa 4 8 million 81 ireland 4 2 million and new zealand 3 7 million 82 in these countries children of native speakers learn english from their parents citizens with other first languages as well as incoming immigrants learn english in order to communicate in local english speaking neighbourhoods and workplaces 83 inner circle countries are the base from which english spreads to other regions of the world 73 outer circle countries such as the philippines 84 jamaica 85 india pakistan singapore 86 malaysia and nigeria 87 88 have much smaller proportions of native english speakers but the use of english as a second language in education government or domestic business is significant and its use for instruction in schools and for official government operations is routine 89 these countries have millions of native speakers on dialect continua which range from english based creole languages to standard varieties of english used in inner circle countries they have many more speakers who acquire english as they grow up through day to day use and exposure to english language broadcasting especially if they attend schools where english is the language of instruction varieties of english learned by non native speakers born to english speaking parents may be influenced especially in their grammar by the other languages spoken by those learners with most including words rarely used by native speakers in inner circle countries as well as grammatical and phonological differences from inner circle varieties 83 expanding circle countries are those where english is taught as a foreign language 90 though the character of english as a first second or foreign language in a given country is often debatable and may change over time 89 for example in countries such as the netherlands an overwhelming majority of the population can speak english 91 and it is often used in higher education and to communicate with foreigners 92 pluricentric english english is a pluricentric language which means that no single national authority sets the standard for its use 93 94 95 96 spoken english including english used in broadcasting generally follows national pronunciation standards that are established by custom rather than by regulation international broadcasters are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather than another through their accents 97 but newsreader scripts are also composed largely in international standard written english the norms of standard written english are maintained purely by the consensus of educated english speakers around the world without any oversight by any government or international organisation 98 american listeners readily understand most british broadcasting and british listeners readily understand most american broadcasting most english speakers around the world can understand radio programmes television programmes and films from many parts of the english speaking world 99 both standard and non standard varieties of english can include formal or informal styles distinguished by word choice and syntax and they use both technical and non technical registers 100 the settlement history of the english speaking inner circle countries outside britain helped to level dialect distinctions and produce koiné forms of english in south africa australia and new zealand 101 the majority of immigrants to the united states without british ancestry rapidly adopted english after arrival now the majority of the united states population are monolingual english speakers 75 102 australia has no official languages at the federal or state level 103 in canada english and french share official status at the federal level 104 105 english has official or co official status in six provinces and three territories while three provinces have none and quebec s only official language is french 106 english is the official second language of ireland while irish is the first 107 while new zealand is majority english speaking its two official languages are māori 108 and new zealand sign language 109 the united kingdom does not have an official language in wales and northern ireland english is co official alongside welsh 110 and irish 111 respectively neither scotland nor england has an official language in the united states english was designated the official language of the country by executive order 14224 in 2025 112 english has additional official or co official status at the state level in 32 states and all 5 territories 113 18 states and the district of columbia have no official language english as a global language main article english as a lingua franca see also foreign language influences in english and study of global communication status of english in public education by region 114 mandatory subject optional subject no data 2014 english proficiency index 115 very high 80 100 per cent high 60 80 per cent moderate 40 60 per cent low 20 40 per cent very low 0 1 20 per cent no data modern english is sometimes described as the first global lingua franca 60 116 or as the first world language 117 118 english is the world s most widely used language in newspaper publishing book publishing international telecommunications scientific publishing international trade mass entertainment and diplomacy 118 parity with french as a language of diplomacy had been achieved by the treaty of versailles negotiations in 1919 119 by the time the united nations was founded at the end of the second world war english had become pre eminent 120 it is one of the six official languages of the united nations 121 and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations 122 many other worldwide international organisations including the international olympic committee specify english as a working language or official language of the organisation many regional international organisations such as the european free trade association efta the association of southeast asian nations asean 61 and asia pacific economic cooperation apec use english as their sole working language despite most members not being countries with a majority of native english speakers while the eu allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the union in practice english is the main working language of eu organisations 123 english serves as the basis for the required controlled natural languages 124 seaspeak and airspeak used as international languages of seafaring 125 and aviation 126 english is the most frequently taught foreign language in the world 60 61 most people learning english do so for practical reasons as opposed to ideological ones 127 in eu countries english is the most widely spoken foreign language in 19 of the 25 member states where it is not an official language that is the countries other than ireland and malta in a 2012 official eurobarometer poll conducted when the uk was still a member of the eu 38 per cent of eu respondents outside the countries where english is an official language said they could speak english well enough to have a conversation in that language the next most commonly mentioned foreign language french which is the most widely known foreign language in the uk and ireland could be used in conversation by 12 per cent of respondents 128 the global influence of english has led to concerns about language death 129 and to claims of linguistic imperialism 130 and has provoked resistance to the spread of english however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world believe that english provides them with better employment opportunities and an increased quality of life 131 working knowledge of english has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine 132 and computing though it formerly had parity with french and german in scientific research english now dominates the field 133 its importance in scientific publishing is such that over 80 per cent of scientific journal articles indexed by chemical abstracts in 1998 were written in english as were 90 per cent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 per cent of articles in humanities publications by 1995 134 as decolonisation proceeded throughout the british empire in the 1950s and 1960s former colonies often did not reject english but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies 57 58 135 for example english is one of the official languages of india many indians have shifted from associating the language with colonialism to associating it with economic progress 136 english is widely used in media and literature with india being the third largest publisher of english language books in the world after the us and the uk 137 however fewer than 5 per cent of the population speak english fluently with the country s native english speakers numbering in the low hundreds of thousands 138 139 in 2004 david crystal claimed that india had the largest population of people able to speak or understand english in the world 140 though most scholars estimate that the us remains home to a larger english speaking population 141 many english speakers in africa have become part of an afro saxon language community that unites africans from different countries 142 regarding its future development it is considered most likely that english will continue to function as a koiné language with a standard form that unifies speakers around the world 143 dialects accents and varieties dialectologists identify many english dialects which usually refer to regional varieties that differ from each other in terms of patterns of grammar vocabulary and pronunciation the pronunciation of particular areas distinguishes dialects as separate regional accents the major native dialects of english are often divided by linguists into two extremely general categories british english bre and north american english nae 144 britain and ireland an example of a man with a contemporary received pronunciation accent alain de botton an example of a man with a cockney accent danny baker an example of an essex man with a working class estuary english accent russell brand an example of a man with a west yorkshire accent damien hirst an example of a man with a contemporary liverpool accent john bishop an example of a man with a south wales accent rob brydon an example of a man with one of the many accents of scotland alex salmond an example of a man with a northern irish accent george best an example of a woman with one of the many accents of ireland mary robinson primary dialect regions in the united kingdom and ireland the fact that english has been spoken in england for 1 500 years explains why england has a great wealth of regional dialects 145 within the united kingdom received pronunciation rp an educated accent associated originally with south east england has been traditionally used as a broadcast standard and is considered the most prestigious of british accents the spread of rp also known as bbc english through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural england to recede as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of those from local dialects at the time of the 1950 61 survey of english dialects grammar and vocabulary diffe...
|
