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nd fat man whose plutonium was derived from uranium 238 little boy became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated over hiroshima japan on 6 august 1945 exploding with a yield equivalent to 12 500 tonnes of tnt the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50 000 buildings and killed about 75 000 people see atomic bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki 37 in 1943 the manhattan project contracted two private companies union carbide and chevron to quietly compile a survey of uranium deposits around the world as the survey results came in two geology professors studied the results and suggested general guidelines for new sources including uranium associated with gold mines in the rand area in south africa 50 initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare and that nuclear proliferation could be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world 51 reactors four light bulbs lit with electricity generated from the first artificial electricity producing nuclear reactor ebr i 1951 the x 10 graphite reactor at oak ridge national laboratory ornl in oak ridge tennessee formerly known as the clinton pile and x 10 pile was the world s second artificial nuclear reactor after enrico fermi s chicago pile and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation argonne national laboratory s experimental breeder reactor i located at the atomic energy commission s national reactor testing station near arco idaho became the first nuclear reactor to create electricity on 20 december 1951 52 initially four 150 watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor but improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole facility later the town of arco became the first in the world to have all its electricity come from nuclear power generated by borax iii another reactor designed and operated by argonne national laboratory 53 54 the world s first commercial scale nuclear power station obninsk in the soviet union began generation with its reactor am 1 on 27 june 1954 other early nuclear power plants were calder hall in england which began generation on 17 october 1956 55 and the shippingport atomic power station in pennsylvania which began on 26 may 1958 nuclear power was used for the first time for propulsion by a submarine the uss nautilus in 1954 40 56 prehistoric naturally occurring fission main article natural nuclear fission reactor in 1972 french physicist francis perrin discovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at the oklo mine in gabon africa collectively known as the oklo fossil reactors the ore deposit is 1 7 billion years old then uranium 235 constituted about 3 of uranium on earth 57 this is high enough to permit a sustained chain reaction if other supporting conditions exist the capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the health threatening nuclear waste products has been cited by the u s federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at the yucca mountain nuclear waste repository 57 contamination and the cold war legacy u s and ussr russian nuclear weapons stockpiles 1945 2005 above ground nuclear tests by the soviet union and the united states in the 1950s and early 1960s and by france into the 1970s and 1980s 24 spread a significant amount of fallout from uranium daughter isotopes around the world 58 additional fallout and pollution occurred from several nuclear accidents 59 uranium miners have a higher incidence of cancer an excess risk of lung cancer among navajo uranium miners for example has been documented and linked to their occupation 60 the radiation exposure compensation act a 1990 law in the us required 100 000 in compassion payments to uranium miners diagnosed with cancer or other respiratory ailments 61 during the cold war between the soviet union and the united states huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium after the break up of the soviet union in 1991 an estimated 600 short tons 540 metric tons of highly enriched weapons grade uranium enough to make 40 000 nuclear warheads had been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in the russian federation and several other former soviet states 20 police in asia europe and south america on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb grade uranium or plutonium most of which was from ex soviet sources 20 from 1993 to 2005 the material protection control and accounting program operated by the federal government of the united states spent about us 550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in russia this money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities 20 safety of nuclear facilities in russia has been significantly improved since the stabilization of political and economical turmoil of the early 1990s for example in 1993 there were 29 incidents ranking above level 1 on the international nuclear event scale and this number dropped under four per year in 1995 2003 the number of employees receiving annual radiation doses above 20 msv which is equivalent to a single full body ct scan 62 saw a strong decline around 2000 in november 2015 the russian government approved a federal program for nuclear and radiation safety for 2016 to 2030 with a budget of 562 billion rubles ca 8 billion usd its key issue is the deferred liabilities accumulated during the 70 years of the nuclear industry particularly during the time of the soviet union about 73 of the budget will be spent on decommissioning aged and obsolete nuclear reactors and nuclear facilities especially those involved in state defense programs 20 will go in processing and disposal of nuclear fuel and radioactive waste and 5 into monitoring and ensuring of nuclear and radiation safety 63 occurrence uranium is a naturally occurring element found in low levels in all rock soil and water it is the highest numbered element found naturally in significant quantities on earth and is almost always found combined with other elements 12 uranium is the 48th most abundant element in the earth s crust 64 the decay of uranium thorium and potassium 40 in earth s mantle is thought to be the main source of heat 65 66 that keeps the earth s outer core in the liquid state and drives mantle convection which in turn drives plate tectonics uranium s concentration in the earth s crust is depending on the reference 2 to 4 parts per million 11 24 or about 40 times as abundant as silver 17 the earth s crust from the surface to 25 km 15 mi down is calculated to contain 10 17 kg 2 10 17 lb of uranium while the oceans may contain 10 13 kg 2 10 13 lb 11 the concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0 7 to 11 parts per million up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphate fertilizers containing uranium impurities 67 and its concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion 24 uranium is more plentiful than antimony tin cadmium mercury or silver and it is about as abundant as arsenic or molybdenum 12 24 uranium is found in hundreds of minerals including uraninite also called pitchblende the most common uranium ore uo 2 with some u 3 o 8 carnotite k 2 uo 2 2 vo 4 2 3h 2 o autunite ca uo 2 2 po 4 2 10 12h 2 o uranophane ca uo 2 2 sio 3 oh 2 5h 2 o davidite la ce ca y u ti fe 3 20 o 38 or ce la y u ti fe 3 20 o 38 torbernite cu uo 2 po 4 2 12h 2 o coffinite u sio 4 1 x oh 4x 12 significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such as phosphate rock deposits and minerals such as lignite and monazite sands in uranium rich ores 12 it is recovered commercially from sources with as little as 0 1 uranium 17 origin like all elements with atomic weights higher than that of iron uranium is only naturally formed by the r process rapid neutron capture in supernovae and neutron star mergers 68 primordial thorium and uranium are only produced in the r process because the s process slow neutron capture is too slow and cannot pass the gap of instability after bismuth 69 70 besides the two extant primordial uranium isotopes 235 u and 238 u the r process also produced significant quantities of 236 u which has a shorter half life and so is an extinct radionuclide having long since decayed completely to 232 th further uranium 236 was produced by the decay of 244 pu accounting for the observed higher than expected abundance of thorium and lower than expected abundance of uranium 71 while the natural abundance of uranium has been supplemented by the decay of extinct 242 pu half life 375 000 years and 247 cm half life 16 million years producing 238 u and 235 u respectively this occurred to an almost negligible extent due to the shorter half lives of these parents and their lower production than 236 u and 244 pu the parents of thorium the 247 cm 235 u ratio at the formation of the solar system was 7 0 1 6 10 5 72 biotic and abiotic main article uranium in the environment uraninite also known as pitchblende is the most common ore mined to extract uranium the evolution of earth s radiogenic heat flow over time contribution from 235 u in red and from 238 u in green some bacteria such as shewanella putrefaciens geobacter metallireducens and some strains of burkholderia fungorum can use uranium for their growth and convert u vi to u iv 73 74 recent research suggests that this pathway includes reduction of the soluble u vi via an intermediate u v pentavalent state 75 76 other organisms such as the lichen trapelia involuta or microorganisms such as the bacterium citrobacter can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times the level of their environment 77 citrobacter species absorb uranyl ions when given glycerol phosphate or other similar organic phosphates after one day one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used in bioremediation to decontaminate uranium polluted water 32 78 the proteobacterium geobacter has also been shown to bioremediate uranium in ground water 79 the mycorrhizal fungus glomus intraradices increases uranium content in the roots of its symbiotic plant 80 in nature uranium vi forms highly soluble carbonate complexes at alkaline ph this leads to an increase in mobility and availability of uranium to groundwater and soil from nuclear wastes which leads to health hazards however it is difficult to precipitate uranium as phosphate in the presence of excess carbonate at alkaline ph a sphingomonas sp strain bsar 1 has been found to express a high activity alkaline phosphatase phok that has been applied for bioprecipitation of uranium as uranyl phosphate species from alkaline solutions the precipitation ability was enhanced by overexpressing phok protein in e coli 81 plants absorb some uranium from soil dry weight concentrations of uranium in plants range from 5 to 60 parts per billion and ash from burnt wood can have concentrations up to 4 parts per million 32 dry weight concentrations of uranium in food plants are typically lower with one to two micrograms per day ingested through the food people eat 32 production and mining main article uranium mining worldwide production of uranium in 2024 was 60 213 tonnes of which 23 270 t 39 was mined in kazakhstan other important uranium mining countries are canada 14 309 t namibia 7 333 t australia 4 598 t uzbekistan 4 000 t and russia 2 738 t 82 uranium ore is mined in several ways open pit underground in situ leaching and borehole mining 10 low grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0 01 to 0 25 uranium oxides extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore 83 high grade ores found in athabasca basin deposits in saskatchewan canada can contain up to 23 uranium oxides on average 84 uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either an acid or alkali the leachate is subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation solvent extraction and ion exchange the resulting mixture called yellowcake contains at least 75 uranium oxides u 3 o 8 yellowcake is then calcined to remove impurities from the milling process before refining and conversion 85 commercial grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals 12 uranium metal can also be prepared through electrolysis of kuf 5 or uf 4 dissolved in molten calcium chloride cacl 2 and sodium chloride na cl solution 12 very pure uranium is produced through the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament 12 world uranium production mines and demand 82 yellowcake is a concentrated mixture of uranium oxides that is further refined to extract pure uranium uranium production 2015 in tonnes 86 resources and reserves uranium price 1990 2022 it is estimated that 6 1 million tonnes of uranium exists in ores that are economically viable at us 130 per kg of uranium 87 while 35 million tonnes are classed as mineral resources reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction 88 australia has 28 of the world s known uranium ore reserves 87 and the world s largest single uranium deposit is located at the olympic dam mine in south australia 89 there is a significant reserve of uranium in bakouma a sub prefecture in the prefecture of mbomou in the central african republic 90 some uranium also originates from dismantled nuclear weapons 91 for example in 1993 2013 russia supplied the united states with 15 000 tonnes of low enriched uranium within the megatons to megawatts program 92 an additional 4 6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be dissolved in sea water japanese scientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea water using ion exchangers was technically feasible 93 94 there have been experiments to extract uranium from sea water 95 but the yield has been low due to the carbonate present in the water in 2012 ornl researchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed hicap which performs surface retention of solid or gas molecules atoms or ions and also effectively removes toxic metals from water according to results verified by researchers at pacific northwest national laboratory 96 97 supplies main article uranium market see also 2000s commodities boom monthly uranium spot price in us per pound the 2007 price peak is clearly visible 98 in 2005 ten countries accounted for the majority of the world s concentrated uranium oxides canada 27 9 australia 22 8 kazakhstan 10 5 russia 8 0 namibia 7 5 niger 7 4 uzbekistan 5 5 the united states 2 5 argentina 2 1 and ukraine 1 9 99 in 2008 kazakhstan was forecast to increase production and become the world s largest supplier of uranium by 2009 100 101 kazakhsta...
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