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languages such as the khoe and bantu languages today about nine per cent of the south african population speaks south african english sae as a first language sae is a non rhotic variety that tends to follow rp as a norm it is one of the few non rhotic english varieties that lack intrusive r the second language varieties of south africa differ according to the native languages of their speakers 188 most phonological differences from rp are in the vowels 189 consonantal differences include the tendency to pronounce p t t͡ʃ k without aspiration e g pin pronounced pɪn rather than pʰɪn as in most other varieties while r is often pronounced as a flap ɾ instead of as the more common fricative 190 nigerian english is a variety of english spoken in nigeria over 150 million nigerians speak some form of the language 191 though traditionally based on british english increasing united states influence during the latter part of the 20th century has resulted in american english vocabulary entering nigerian english additionally some new words and collocations have emerged from the variety out of a need to express concepts specific to the nation s culture e g senior wife 192 varieties of english are spoken throughout the former british colonial possessions in the caribbean including jamaica the leeward and windward islands trinidad and tobago barbados the cayman islands and belize each of these areas is home both to a local variety of english and a local english based creole combining english and african languages the most prominent varieties are jamaican english and jamaican creole in central america english based creoles are spoken on the caribbean coasts of nicaragua and panama 193 residents are often fluent in both the local english variety and the local creole languages and frequently code switch between them the relationship between different varieties can be conceptualised as a continuum in which more creole like or rp like forms function as more formal and informal registers of the language respectively 194 most caribbean varieties are based on british english and consequently most are non rhotic except for formal styles of jamaican english which are often rhotic jamaican english differs from rp in its vowel inventory which has a distinction between long and short vowels rather than tense and lax vowels as in standard english the diphthongs ei and ou are monophthongs eː and oː or even the reverse diphthongs ie and uo e g bay and boat pronounced bʲeː and bʷoːt often word final consonant clusters are simplified so that child is pronounced t͡ʃail and wind win 195 196 197 indian english historically tends towards rp as an ideal with the proximity of speakers to rp generally reflecting class distinctions indian english accents are marked by the pronunciation of phonemes such as t and d often pronounced with retroflex articulation as ʈ and ɖ and the replacement of θ and ð with dentals t̪ and d̪ sometimes indian english speakers may also use spelling based pronunciations where the silent h found in words such as ghost is pronounced as an indian voiced aspirated stop ɡʱ 198 non native varieties an example of a hispanophone man speaking english an example of a japanese man speaking english shinzo abe an example of a german man speaking english werner herzog non native english speakers may pronounce words differently because they have not fully mastered english pronunciation this can happen either because they apply the speech rules of their mother tongue to english interference or because they implement strategies similar to those used in first language acquisition they may create novel pronunciations for english sounds that do not exist in their first language 199 phonology this section contains phonetic transcriptions in the international phonetic alphabet ipa for an introductory guide on ipa symbols see help ipa english phonology and phonetics differ from one dialect to another usually without interfering with mutual communication phonological variation affects the inventory of phonemes speech sounds that distinguish meaning and phonetic variation consists in differences in pronunciation of the phonemes 200 this overview mainly describes received pronunciation rp and general american ga the standard varieties of the united kingdom and the united states respectively 201 202 203 consonants most english dialects share the same 24 consonant phonemes or 26 if marginal x and glottal stop ʔ are included the consonant inventory shown below is valid for california english 204 and for rp 205 consonant phonemes bilabial labiodental dental alveolar post alveolar palatal velar glottal nasal m n ŋ plosive p b t d k ɡ ʔ affricate tʃ dʒ fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ x h approximant median ɹ j w lateral l for pairs of obstruents stops affricates and fricatives such as p b tʃ dʒ and s z the first is fortis strong and the second is lenis weak fortis obstruents such as p tʃ s are pronounced with more muscular tension and breath force than lenis consonants such as b dʒ z and are always voiceless lenis consonants are partly voiced at the beginning and end of utterances and fully voiced between vowels fortis stops such as p have additional articulatory or acoustic features in most dialects they are aspirated pʰ when they occur alone at the beginning of a stressed syllable often unaspirated in other cases and often unreleased p̚ or pre glottalised ʔp at the end of a syllable in a single syllable word a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened e g nip has a noticeably shorter vowel phonetically not phonemically than nib nɪˑb̥ see below 206 lenis stops bin b̥ɪˑn about əˈbaʊt nib nɪˑb̥ fortis stops pin pʰɪn spin spɪn happy ˈhæpi nip nɪp̚ or nɪʔp in rp the lateral approximant l has two main allophones pronunciation variants the clear or plain l as in light and the dark or velarised ɫ as in full 207 ga has dark l in most cases 208 clear l rp light laɪt dark l rp and ga full fʊɫ ga light ɫaɪt all sonorants liquids l r and nasals m n ŋ devoice when following a voiceless obstruent and they are syllabic when following a consonant at the end of a word 209 voiceless sonorants clay kl̥eɪ̯ snow rp sn̥əʊ̯ ga sn̥oʊ̯ syllabic sonorants paddle ˈpad l̩ button ˈbʌt n̩ vowels tense vowels rp ga word i i n ee d u u f oo d eɪ b ay əʊ oʊ r oa d aɪ cr y aʊ c ow ɔɪ b oy ɪə ɪɹ p eer eə ɛɹ p air ʊə ʊɹ p oor lax vowels and other monophthongs rp ga word ɪ b i d e ɛ b e d æ b a ck ɑː ɑ br a ɒ b o x ɔ ɑ cl o th ɔː p aw ʊ g oo d ʌ ə b u t ə comm a ɜː ɜɹ b ir d the pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of a speaker s accent the accompanying table below lists the vowel phonemes in rp and ga with example words from lexical sets the vowels are represented with symbols from the international phonetic alphabet those given for rp are standard in british dictionaries and other publications 210 in rp vowel length is phonemic long vowels are marked with a triangular colon ː in the table above such as the vowel of need niːd as opposed to bid bɪd 211 in ga vowel length is non distinctive 212 in both rp and ga vowels are phonetically shortened before fortis consonants in the same syllable like t tʃ f but not before lenis consonants like d dʒ v or in open syllables thus the vowels of rich rɪtʃ neat nit and safe seɪ̯f are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ridge rɪˑdʒ need niˑd and save seˑɪ̯v and the vowel of light laɪ̯t is shorter than that of lie laˑɪ̯ because lenis consonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable vowel length is an important cue as to whether the following consonant is lenis or fortis 213 the vowel ə only occurs in unstressed syllables and is more open in quality in stem final positions 214 215 some dialects do not contrast ɪ and ə in unstressed positions such that rabbit and abbot rhyme and lenin and lennon are homophonous a dialectal feature called the weak vowel merger 216 ga ɜr and ər are realised as an r coloured vowel ɚ as in further ˈfɚðɚ phonemically ˈfɜrðər which in rp is realised as ˈfəːðə phonemically ˈfɜːðə 217 phonotactics an english syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting of a vowel sound syllable onset and coda start and end are optional a syllable can start with up to three consonant sounds as in sprint sprɪnt and end with up to five as in for some dialects angsts aŋksts this gives an english syllable a structure of ccc v ccccc where c represents a consonant and v a vowel the word strengths strɛŋθs is thus close to the most complex syllable possible in english the consonants that may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted as is the order in which they may appear onsets can only have four types of consonant clusters a stop and approximant as in play a voiceless fricative and approximant as in fly or sly s and a voiceless stop as in stay and s a voiceless stop and an approximant as in string 218 clusters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas clusters of obstruents always agree in voicing and clusters of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of articulation are prohibited several consonants have limited distributions h can only occur in syllable initial position and ŋ only in syllable final position 219 stress rhythm and intonation see also stress and vowel reduction in english intonation linguistics english and english prosody stress plays an important role in english certain syllables are stressed while others are unstressed stress is a combination of duration intensity vowel quality and sometimes changes in pitch stressed syllables are pronounced longer and louder than unstressed syllables and vowels in unstressed syllables are frequently reduced while vowels in stressed syllables are not 220 stress in english is phonemic gaining freedom and dynamicity once lost in proto germanic through a majority of borrowings from non germanic languages for instance the word contract is stressed on the first syllable ˈ k ɒ n t r æ k t kon trakt when used as a noun but on the last syllable k ə n ˈ t r æ k t kən trakt for most meanings for example reduce in size when used as a verb 221 222 223 here stress is connected to vowel reduction in the noun contract the first syllable is stressed and has the unreduced vowel ɒ but in the verb contract the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to ə stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases so that a compound word receives a single stress unit but the corresponding phrase has two e g a burnout ˈ b ɜːr n aʊ t versus to burn out ˈ b ɜːr n ˈ aʊ t and a hotdog ˈ h ɒ t d ɒ ɡ versus a hot dog ˈ h ɒ t ˈ d ɒ ɡ 224 in terms of rhythm english is generally described as a stress timed language meaning that the amount of time between stressed syllables tends to be equal 225 stressed syllables are pronounced longer but unstressed syllables syllables between stresses are shortened vowels in unstressed syllables are shortened as well and vowel shortening causes changes in vowel quality vowel reduction 226 regional variation phonological features in standard english varieties 227 united states canada ireland northern ireland scotland england wales south africa australia new zealand father bother merger yes yes ɒ is unrounded yes yes yes ɜr is pronounced ɚ yes yes yes yes cot caught merger possibly yes possibly yes yes fool full merger yes yes t d flapping yes yes possibly often rarely rarely rarely rarely yes often trap bath split possibly possibly often yes yes often yes non rhoticity yes yes yes yes yes close vowels for æ ɛ yes yes yes l can always be pronounced ɫ yes yes yes yes yes yes ɑː is fronted before r possibly possibly yes yes dialects and low vowels lexical set rp ga cane sound change thought ɔː ɔ or ɑ ɑ cot caught merger cloth ɒ lot cloth split lot ɑ father bother merger palm ɑː bath æ æ trap bath split trap æ varieties of english vary the most in pronunciation of vowels the best known national varieties used as standards for education in non english speaking countries are british bre and american ame countries such as canada australia ireland new zealand and south africa have their own standard varieties which are less often used as standards for education internationally 227 english has undergone many historical sound changes some of them affecting all varieties and others affecting only a few most standard varieties are affected by the great vowel shift which changed the pronunciation of long vowels but a few dialects have slightly different results in north america a number of chain shifts such as the northern cities vowel shift and canadian shift have produced very different vowel landscapes in some regional accents 228 some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes and phones than the standard varieties some conservative varieties like scottish english have a voiceless ʍ sound in whine that contrasts with the voiced w in wine but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced w a dialect feature called wine whine merger the voiceless velar fricative sound x is found in scottish english which distinguishes loch lɔx from lock lɔk accents like cockney with h dropping lack the glottal fricative h and dialects with th stopping and th fronting like african american vernacular and estuary english do not have the dental fricatives θ ð but replace them with dental or alveolar stops t d or labiodental fricatives f v 229 230 other changes affecting the phonology of local varieties are processes such as yod dropping yod coalescence and reduction of consonant clusters 231 page needed ga and rp vary in their pronunciation of historical r after a vowel at the end of a syllable in the syllable coda ga is a rhotic dialect meaning that it pronounces r at the end of a syllable but rp is non rhotic meaning that it loses r in that position english dialects are classified as rhotic or non rhotic depending on whether they elide r like rp or keep it like ga 232 there is complex dialectal variation in words with the open front and open back vowels æ ɑː ɒ ɔː these four vowels are only distinguished in rp australia new zealand and south africa in ga these vowels merge to three æ ɑ ɔ 233 and in canadian english they merge to two æ ɑ 234 orthography since the 9th century english has been written using the english alphabet which uses the latin script anglo saxon runes were previously used to write old english but only in short inscriptions the overwhelming majority of attested writings in old english are in the old english latin alphabet 33 english orthography is multi layered and complex with elements of french latin and greek spelling on top of the native germanic system 235 further complications have arisen through sound changes with which the orthography has not kept pace 50 compared to european languages for which official organisations have promoted spelling reforms english has spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to guess fro...
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