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l holiday 48 the liberal bourgeoisie hastily formed a provisional government under charles rogier to negotiate with the dutch officially declaring belgian independence on 4 october 1830 the belgian national congress was formed to draw up a constitution under the new constitution belgium became a sovereign independent state with a constitutional monarchy however the constitution severely limited voting rights to the french speaking haute bourgeoisie and the clergy in a country where french was not the majority language the catholic church was afforded a good deal of freedom from state intervention the state of conflict but not open warfare with the netherlands lasted another eight years but in 1839 the treaty of london was signed between the two countries and the five great powers of europe austria france prussia russia and the united kingdom by the treaty of 1839 the eastern part of luxembourg did not join belgium but remained a possession of the netherlands until different inheritance laws caused it to separate as an independent grand duchy the western french speaking part of luxembourg became the belgian province of that name belgium lost eastern limburg zeelandic flanders french flanders and eupen the netherlands retained the former two while french flanders remained in french possession eupen remained within the german confederation the five great powers pledged to protect belgium s neutrality in the future 49 in 1914 the violation of belgium s neutrality would be the stated casus belli of britain s entry into world war i 50 independence to world war i edit main article belgium in the long nineteenth century industrial revolution edit see also industrial revolution belgium history of wallonia industry and sillon industriel painting of steel production in ougrée by constantin meunier 1885 most of society was highly traditional especially in rural areas and the quality of education was low 51 nevertheless belgium was the second country after britain in which the industrial revolution took place it developed into an open economy focused on industrial exports with strong ties between the banking sector and industry 52 industrialization took place in wallonia starting in the mid 1820s and especially after 1830 the availability of cheap coal was a main factor that attracted entrepreneurs coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around liège and charleroi the leader was a transplanted englishman john cockerill his factories at seraing integrated all stages of production from engineering to the supply of raw materials as early as 1825 53 industry spread through the sillon industriel industrial district haine sambre and meuse valleys 54 by 1830 when iron became important the belgian coal industry had been long established and used steam engines for pumping coal was sold to local mills and railways as well as to france and prussia the textile industry based on cotton and flax employed about half of the industrial workforce for much of the industrial period ghent was the premier industrial city in belgium until the 1880s when the center of growth moved to liège with its steel industry 55 wallonia had rich coalfields over much of its area deep mines were not required at first so there were a large number of small operations there was a complex legal system for concessions often multiple layers had different owners entrepreneurs started going deeper and deeper thanks to the innovation of steam pumping in 1790 the maximum depth of mines was 220 meters by 1856 the average depth in the area west of mons was 361 and in 1866 some pits had reached down 700 and 900 meters one was 1 065 meters deep probably the deepest coal mine in europe at this time gas explosions were a serious problem and belgium had high fatality rates by the late 19th century the seams were becoming exhausted and the steel industry was importing some coal from the ruhr 56 cheap and readily available coal attracted firms producing metals and glass both of which required considerable amounts of coal and so regions around coal fields became highly industrialised the sillon industriel and in particular the pays noir around charleroi were the centre of the steel industry until the second world war railways edit the first belgian produced steam locomotive the belgian le belge built in 1835 main article history of rail transport in belgium the nation provided an ideal model for showing the value of the railways for speeding the industrial revolution after 1830 the new nation decided to stimulate industry it funded a simple cross shaped system that connected the major cities ports and mining areas and linked to neighboring countries belgium thus became the railway center of the region the system was very soundly built along british lines so that profits and wages were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place léopold i went on to build the first railway in continental europe in 1835 between brussels and mechelen 57 the development of smaller railways in belgium notably the liège jemappes line was launched by tendering contracts to private companies which became the model for the extension of small local railways all over the low countries 58 by the 1900s belgium was a major exporter of trams and other rail components exporting vast quantities of railway materials in south america 3 800 kilometers of track were owned by belgian firms with a further 1 500 kilometers in china 58 one belgian entrepreneur édouard empain known as the tramway king built many public transport systems across the world including the paris métro 59 other important businesses included cockerill sambre steel the chemical factories of ernest solvay and the firearms maker fabrique nationale de herstal liberalism and catholicism edit see also liberalism in belgium and first school war before the arrival of the socialists in the 1890s the nation was polarised between the conservative catholic party and the secular liberal party the liberals were anticlerical and wanted to reduce the power of the church the conflict came to a head during the first school war of 1879 1884 as liberal attempts to introduce a greater level of secularism in primary education were beaten back by outraged catholics the school war ushered in a period of catholic party dominance in belgian politics that lasted almost unbroken until 1917 60 religious conflict also extended to university education where secular universities like the free university of brussels competed with catholic universities like the catholic university of leuven linguistic conflict edit the majority of those in the north of the country spoke dutch and other low franconian languages while those in the south spoke langues d oïl such as french walloon and picard french became the official language of government after the separation from the netherlands in 1830 and belgian cultural life was especially dominated by the french influence 61 62 reinforced by economic domination of the industrial south flemish was reduced to the tongue of a second class culture 63 parts of the flemish population reacted against this this was partly due to a sense of growing flemish identity flemish victories like the battle of the golden spurs in 1302 were celebrated and a flemish cultural movement led by figures like hendrik conscience was born about the same time a walloon movement emerged led by jules destrée and based on loyalty to the french language universal suffrage meant the francophones were a political minority so the walloon movement concentrated on protecting french where it had a majority and did not contest the expanded use of dutch in flemish areas 64 the flemish goal of linguistic equality especially in schools and courts was finally achieved by a series of laws in the 1920s and 1930s dutch became the language of government education and the courts in the northern provinces of east and west flanders antwerp limburg and eastern brabant french remained the official language in wallonia brussels which had seen a major language shift to french became an officially bilingual region meanwhile a small separatist flemish movement had emerged the germans had supported it during the war and in the 1930s it turned fascist in the second world war it collaborated with the nazis 65 foreign relations and military policy edit see also belgium and the franco prussian war in the mid 1860s during the mexican adventure around 1 500 belgian soldiers joined the belgian expeditionary corps better known as the belgian legion to fight for emperor maximilian i whose wife charlotte was the daughter of leopold i of belgium 66 belgium was not a belligerent in the franco prussian war 1870 71 but the proximity of the war led to the mobilisation of the army 67 after the conflict there was talk of modernising the military the system of remplacement whereby wealthy belgians conscripted into the military could pay for a replacement was abolished and an improved system of conscription implemented these reforms led by d anethan under pressure from leopold ii divided belgian politics the catholics united with the liberals under frère orban to oppose them and the reforms were finally defeated when d anethan s government fell during an unrelated scandal 68 eventually the military was reformed the 1909 system instituted compulsory military service of eight years on active duty and five years in the reserves this swelled the size of the belgian army to over 100 000 well trained men 50 construction of a chain of forts along the border was intensified and let to a series of very modern fortifications including the so called national redoubt at antwerp at the fortified positions of liège and namur many of them designed by the belgian fortress architect henri alexis brialmont rise of the socialist party and the trade unions edit see also belgian labour party and belgian general strikes the economy was stagnant during the long depression of 1873 1895 as prices and wages fell and labour unrest grew 69 the belgian workers party was founded in 1885 in brussels it issued the charter of quaregnon in 1894 calling for an end to capitalism and a thorough reorganization of society during the late 19th century general strikes became an established aspect of the political process between 1892 and 1961 there were 20 major strikes including 7 general strikes many of these had overtly political motives like the 1893 general strike that helped achieve universal male suffrage on several occasions belgian general strikes escalated into violence in 1893 soldiers fired on the striking crowd killing several karl marx wrote there exists but one country in the civilised world where every strike is eagerly and joyously turned into a pretext for the official massacre of the working class that country of single blessedness is belgium 70 nevertheless belgium created a welfare net particularly early thanks in part to the trade unions sickness compensation was established in 1894 voluntary old age insurance in 1900 and unemployment insurance in 1907 achieving good coverage nationwide much more quickly than its neighbours 71 belgium also witnessed a rise in the number of co operatives with 1200 in existence by 1910 with nearly 200 000 members 72 catholic governments and social policy edit various reforms were introduced under the catholic governments that led belgium from the late nineteenth century onwards in 1887 the system of paying workers in kind and in pubs was outlawed and joint industrial and labour councils were established in 1889 labour law councils were reformed with employers facing increasing working class representation that same year legislation on social housing and women s and child labour was reformed in 1900 the first law on old age pensions was approved while a 1903 law on industrial accidents stipulated it was no longer up to the worker to prove his innocence from 1900 onwards catholic governments began subsidising unemployment funds health services and savings banks mandatory sunday rest was approved in 1905 while other reforms were carried out such as reduced working hours for miners the outlawing of night work for women and pensions for the military and civil service 73 under a law that came into effect in 1892 the employment of women and children under the age of 21 was prohibited 74 in 1890 a fund of providence and relief for victims of industrial accidents was introduced by law 75 in 1894 state subsidies were established for sickness funds 76 following the elections of 1894 and 1896 according to one study the catholics continued steadily carrying out their programme of social reforms and various acts were passed for the welfare of the working classes old age pensions workmen s dwellings employers liability subsidies to savings banks and mutual societies for the encouragement of thrift 77 an 1896 law made workshop regulations compulsory for all companies employing at least 10 workers which changed to 5 workers in 1900 78 while other social policy measures included employers industrial accident funds in 1903 and small state subsidies to voluntary unemployment funds in 1907 79 in 1914 compulsory education was introduced for children between 6 and 14 80 a national crisis fund as set up at the end of 1920 which according to one study marked an important step towards general compensation for involuntary unemployment 81 healthcare subsidising by the national government was expanded as characterised by disability funds in 1912 general medical care expenses for general practitioner and pharmacist in 1920 an anti tuberculosis fund in 1921 basic treatment in 1927 expansion from general to particular medical care surgery hospitalisation preventive medicine cancer in 1931 and insurance for women and families marriage premium and premium for death of spouse death benefits in 1936 82 in 1919 a scheme for the war injured was introduced and for the victims of occupational diseases in 1927 from 1928 onwards means tested allowances were provided to physically disabled persons 83 in august 1930 a law was passed making family allowances compulsory in private industry 84 in 1921 an act was passed providing for an 8 hour day and 48 hour working week and in 1936 annual paid holidays were introduced in most industries 85 voting rights edit the fusilade of mons during the 1893 strike as the borains are fired on by the garde civique during the protests for universal suffrage see also belgian general strike of 1893 in 1893 the government rejected a proposal for universal male suffrage outraged the belgian labour party called a general strike by april 17 there were more than 50 000 strikers violent confrontations broke out with the garde civique the civil guard or militia around the country the government soon backed down and passed male universal suffrage but reduced its impact by creating plural votes based on wealth education and age the catho...
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