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r the hong kong group see information technology constituency it redirects here for the book by stephen king see it novel for other uses see it disambiguation infotech redirects here for infotech enterprises see cyient information science general aspects access architecture behavior management retrieval seeking society knowledge organization ontology philosophy science and technology studies taxonomy related fields and subfields academic freedom bibliometrics categorization censorship classification computer data storage cultural studies data modeling freedom of information freedom of the press informatics information ethics information technology information wants to be free intellectual freedom intellectual property internet freedom internet privacy library and information science memory preservation privacy right to privacy right to know quantum information science v t e a computer lab contains a wide range of information technology elements including hardware software and storage systems information technology it is the study or use of computers telecommunication systems and other devices to create process store retrieve and transmit information 1 while the term is commonly used to refer to computers and computer networks it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones information technology is an application of computer science and computer engineering 2 3 an information technology system it system is generally an information system a communications system or more specifically speaking a computer system including all hardware software and peripheral equipment operated by a limited group of it users and an it project usually refers to the commissioning and implementation of an it system 4 it systems play a vital role in facilitating efficient data management enhancing communication networks 5 and supporting organizational processes across various industries successful it projects require meticulous planning and ongoing maintenance to ensure optimal functionality and alignment with organizational objectives 6 7 although humans have been storing retrieving manipulating analysing and communicating information since the earliest writing systems were developed 8 the term information technology in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the harvard business review authors harold j leavitt and thomas l whisler commented that the new technology does not yet have a single established name we shall call it information technology it 9 their definition consists of three categories techniques for processing the application of statistical and mathematical methods to decision making and the simulation of higher order thinking through computer programs 9 history edit main article history of computing hardware antikythera mechanism considered the first mechanical analog computer dating back to the first century bc based on the storage and processing technologies employed it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of it development pre mechanical 3000 bc 1450 ad mechanical 1450 1840 electromechanical 1840 1940 and electronic 1940 to present 8 ideas of computer science were first mentioned before the 1950s under the massachusetts institute of technology mit and harvard university where they had discussed and began thinking of computer circuits and numerical calculations as time went on the field of information technology and computer science became more complex and was able to handle the processing of more data scholarly articles began to be published from different organizations 10 during the mid 1900s alan turing j presper eckert and john mauchly were some of the pioneers of early computer technology while their main efforts focused on designing the first digital computer turing also began to raise questions about artificial intelligence 11 devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years probably initially in the form of a tally stick 12 the antikythera mechanism dating from about the beginning of the first century bc is generally considered the earliest known mechanical analog computer and the earliest known geared mechanism 13 comparable geared devices did not emerge in europe until the 16th century and it was not until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed 14 zuse z3 replica on display at deutsches museum in munich the zuse z3 is the first programmable computer electronic computers using either relays or thermionic valves began to appear in the early 1940s the electromechanical zuse z3 completed in 1941 was the world s first programmable computer and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine during the second world war colossus developed the first electronic digital computer to decrypt german messages although it was programmable it was not general purpose being designed to perform only a single task it could not also store its program in memory programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring 15 the first recognizably modern electronic digital stored program computer was the manchester baby which ran its first program on 21 june 1948 16 the development of transistors in the late 1940s at bell laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption the first commercially available stored program computer the ferranti mark i contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts by comparison the first transistorized computer developed at the university of manchester and operational by november 1953 consumed only 150 watts in its final version 17 several other breakthroughs in semiconductor technology include the integrated circuit ic invented by jack kilby at texas instruments and robert noyce at fairchild semiconductor in 1959 silicon dioxide surface passivation by carl frosch and lincoln derick in 1955 18 the first planar silicon dioxide transistors by frosch and derick in 1957 19 the mosfet demonstration by a bell labs team 20 21 22 23 the planar process by jean hoerni in 1959 24 25 26 and the microprocessor invented by ted hoff federico faggin masatoshi shima and stanley mazor at intel in 1971 these important inventions led to the development of the personal computer pc in the 1970s and the emergence of information and communications technology ict 27 by 1984 according to the national westminster bank quarterly review the term information technology had been redefined as the convergence of telecommunications and computing technology generally known in britain as information technology we then begin to see the appearance of the term in 1990 contained within documents for the international organization for standardization iso 28 innovations in technology have already revolutionized the world by the twenty first century as people have gained access to different online services this has changed the workforce drastically as thirty percent of u s workers were already in careers in this profession 136 9 million people were personally connected to the internet which was equivalent to 51 million households 29 along with the internet new types of technology were also being introduced across the globe which have improved efficiency and made things easier across the globe as technology revolutionized society millions of processes could be completed in seconds innovations in communication were crucial as people increasingly relied on computers to communicate via telephone lines and cable networks the introduction of the email was considered revolutionary as companies in one part of the world could communicate by e mail with suppliers and buyers in another part of the world 30 computers and technology have also revolutionized the marketing industry resulting in more buyers of their products in 2002 americans exceeded 28 billion in goods just over the internet alone while e commerce a decade later resulted in 289 billion in sales 30 and as computers are rapidly becoming more sophisticated by the day they are becoming more widely used as people are becoming more reliant on them during the twenty first century data processing edit main article electronic data processing ferranti mark i computer logic board electronic data processing or business information processing can refer to the use of automated methods to process commercial data typically this uses relatively simple repetitive activities to process large volumes of similar information for example stock updates applied to an inventory banking transactions applied to account and customer master files booking and ticketing transactions to an airline s reservation system and billing for utility services the modifier electronic or automatic was used with data processing dp especially c 1960 to distinguish human clerical data processing from that done by computer 31 32 storage edit punched tapes were used in early computers to store and represent data main article data storage early electronic computers such as colossus made use of punched tape a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes a technology now obsolete 33 electronic data storage which is used in modern computers dates from world war ii when a form of delay line memory was developed to remove the clutter from radar signals the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line 34 the first random access digital storage device was the williams tube which was based on a standard cathode ray tube 35 however the information stored in it and the delay line memory was volatile in the fact that it had to be continuously refreshed and thus was lost once power was removed the earliest form of non volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum invented in 1932 36 and used in the ferranti mark 1 the world s first commercially available general purpose electronic computer 37 ibm card storage warehouse located in alexandria virginia in 1959 this is where the united states government kept storage of punched cards ibm introduced the first hard disk drive in 1956 as a component of their 305 ramac computer system 38 6 most digital data today is still stored magnetically on hard disks or optically on media such as cd roms 39 4 5 until 2002 most information was stored on analog devices but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time as of 2007 update almost 94 of the data stored worldwide was held digitally 40 52 on hard disks 28 on optical devices and 11 on digital magnetic tape it has been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007 41 doubling roughly every 3 years 42 databases edit main article database database management systems dms emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly an early such system was ibm s information management system ims 43 which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later 44 ims stores data hierarchically 43 but in the 1970s ted codd proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar concepts of tables rows and columns in 1981 the first commercially available relational database management system rdbms was released by oracle 45 all dms consist of components they allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while maintaining its integrity 46 all databases have one common point in that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself in a database schema 43 in the late 2000s decade the extensible markup language xml became a popular format for data representation although xml data can be stored in normal file systems it is commonly held in relational databases to take advantage of their robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort 47 as an evolution of the standard generalized markup language sgml xml s text based structure offers the advantage of being both machine and human readable 48 transmission edit radio towers at pine hill lookout data transmission has three aspects transmission propagation and reception 49 it can be broadly categorized as broadcasting in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream or telecommunications with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels 41 xml has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s 50 particularly for machine oriented interactions such as those involved in web oriented protocols such as soap 48 describing data in transit rather than data at rest 50 manipulation edit hilbert and lopez identify the exponential pace of technological change a kind of moore s law machines application specific capacity to compute information per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007 the per capita capacity of the world s general purpose computers doubled every 18 months during the same two decades the global telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months the world s storage capacity per capita required roughly 40 months to double every 3 years and per capita broadcast information has doubled every 12 3 years 41 massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day but unless it can be analyzed and presented effectively it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs data archives that are seldom visited 51 to address that issue the field of data mining the process of discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data 52 emerged in the late 1980s 53 services edit email edit a woman sending an email at an internet cafe s public computer the technology and services it provides for sending and receiving electronic messages called letters or electronic letters over a distributed including global computer network in terms of the composition of elements and the principle of operation electronic mail practically repeats the system of regular paper mail borrowing both terms mail letter envelope attachment box delivery and others and characteristic features ease of use message transmission delays sufficient reliability and at the same time no guarantee of delivery the advantages of e mail are easily perceived and remembered by a person addresses of the form user_name domain_name for example somebody example com the ability to transfer both plain text and formatted as well as arbitrary files independence of servers in the general case they address each other directly sufficiently high reliability of message delivery ease of use by humans and programs the disadvantages of e mail include the presence of such phenomena as spam massive advertising and viral mailings the theoretical impossibility of guaranteeing the delivery of a particular letter possible delays...
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