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of interest 19 surveying students with professor at the helsinki university of technology in the late 19th century practicing engineers edit in most countries a bachelor s degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and a professional body certifies the degree program after completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam requirements before being certified once certified the engineer is designated as a professional engineer in the united states canada and south africa a chartered engineer in most commonwealth countries a chartered professional engineer in australia and new zealand or a european engineer in most countries of the european union there are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders the benefits of certification vary depending upon location for example in the united states and canada only a licensed professional engineer may prepare sign and seal and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval or seal engineering work for public and private clients 20 this requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the engineers act in quebec 21 no such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the united kingdom in australia state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of queensland almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by 22 engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties in cases where an engineer s work fails they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence and in extreme cases criminal charges 23 an engineer s work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law sub disciplines edit the akashi kaikyō bridge in japan currently the world s second longest suspension span there are a number of sub disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering general civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading drainage pavement water supply sewer service dams electric and communications supply general civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another site engineers spend time visiting project sites meeting with stakeholders and preparing construction plans civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering structural engineering environmental engineering transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential commercial industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction coastal engineering edit main articles coastal engineering and coastal management oosterscheldekering a storm surge barrier in the netherlands coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas in some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion respectively coastal defense is the more traditional term but coastal management has become popular as well construction engineering edit main article construction engineering construction engineering involves planning and execution transportation of materials and site development based on hydraulic environmental structural and geotechnical engineering as construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms construction engineers often engage in more business like transactions such as drafting and reviewing contracts analyze and evaluating logistical operations and monitoring supply prices image shows civil engineers working planning on a site earthquake engineering edit main article earthquake engineering earthquake crash testing performed by engineers to determine the liability of structures earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures earthquake engineering is a sub discipline of structural engineering the main objectives of earthquake engineering are 24 to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes and design construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes environmental engineering edit main article environmental engineering creek contaminated with water pollution environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical biological or thermal wastes purification of water and air and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport water purification waste water treatment air pollution solid waste treatment recycling and hazardous waste management environmental engineers administer pollution reduction green engineering and industrial ecology environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions forensic engineering edit main article forensic engineering forensic engineering is the investigation of materials products structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended causing personal injury or damage to property the consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability the field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery the subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases although it may be of use in criminal law cases generally the purpose of a forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident it can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims especially patents geotechnical engineering edit main article geotechnical engineering a phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air soil water and voids geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems knowledge from the field of soil science materials science mechanics and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations retaining walls and other structures environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geo environmental engineering 25 26 identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering but unlike steel or concrete the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation furthermore soil exhibits nonlinear stress dependent strength stiffness and dilatancy volume change associated with application of shear stress making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult 25 geotechnical engineers frequently work with professional geologists geological engineering professionals and soil scientists 27 materials science and engineering edit main article materials science materials science is closely related to civil engineering it studies fundamental characteristics of materials and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete strong metals such as aluminum and steel and thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate pmma and carbon fibers materials engineering involves protection and prevention paints and finishes alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties it incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry with recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology materials engineering has been at the forefront of academic research it is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis site development and planning edit see also land development and urban planning plan draft of proposed mixed use site site development also known as site planning is focused on the planning and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts from permitting issues and environmental challenges 28 structural engineering edit main article structural engineering burj khalifa animation of construction process shallow foundation construction example structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings bridges towers flyovers overpasses tunnels off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea aerostructure and other structures this involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads the loads can be self weight of the structures other dead load live loads moving wheel load wind load earthquake load load from temperature change etc the structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for to be serviceable due to the nature of some loading conditions sub disciplines within structural engineering have emerged including wind engineering and earthquake engineering 29 design considerations will include strength stiffness and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static such as furniture or self weight or dynamic such as wind seismic crowd or vehicle loads or transitory such as temporary construction loads or impact other considerations include cost constructibility safety aesthetics and sustainability surveying edit main articles surveying and construction surveying surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the earth surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation horizontal vertical and slope distances with computerization electronic distance measurement edm total stations gps surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the earth s surface in the form of a map this information is then used by civil engineers contractors and realtors to design from build on and trade respectively elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures leveling a tripod before setting edm although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping as well as geographic information systems surveyors also lay out the routes of railways tramway tracks highways roads pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure such as harbors before construction land surveying looking through edm in the united states canada the united kingdom and most commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession land surveyors are not considered to be engineers and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements the services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description and subdivision plans a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads both of which are generally referred to as cadastral surveying they collect data on important geological features below and on the land blm cadastral survey marker from 1992 in san xavier arizona construction surveying construction surveying is generally performed by specialized technicians unlike land surveyors the resulting plan does not have legal status construction surveyors perform the following tasks surveying existing conditions of the future work site including topography existing buildings and infrastructure and underground infrastructure when possible lay out or setting out placing reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings verifying the location of structures during construction as built surveying a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans transportation engineering edit main article transportation engineering transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently safely and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community this involves specifying designing constructing and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets canals highways rail systems airports ports and mass transit it includes areas such as transportation design transportation planning traffic engineering some aspects of urban engineering queueing theory pavement engineering intelligent transportation system its and infrastructure management municipal or urban engineering edit the engineering of this roundabout in bristol england attempts to make traffic flow free moving main article urban engineering lake chapultepec municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure this involves specifying designing constructing and maintaining streets sidewalks water supply networks sewers street lighting municipal solid waste management and disposal storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works salt sand etc public parks and cycling infrastructure in the case of underground utility networks it may also include the civil portion conduits and access chambers of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services it can also include the optimization of waste collection and bus service networks some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services as they are often built simultaneously and managed by the same municipal authority municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large buildings industrial plants or campuses i e access roads parking lots potable water supply treatment or pretreatment of waste water site drainage etc water resources engineering edit see also hydraulic engineering and hydrology hoover dam water resources engineering is concerned with the coll...
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