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nder system are found in the pronoun system he him who whom similarly traces of more complex verb conjugation are seen in the inflection of the copula verb to be 250 the seven word classes are exemplified in this sample sentence 251 det noun prep det noun conj det adj noun verb advb conj det noun verb the chairman of the committee and the loquacious politician clashed violently when the meeting started nouns and noun phrases english nouns are only inflected for number and possession new nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding they are semantically divided into proper nouns names and common nouns common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns and grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns 252 most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural suffix s but a few nouns have irregular plural forms mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier e g one loaf of bread two loaves of bread 253 regular plural formation singular cat dog plural cats dogs irregular plural formation singular man woman foot fish ox knife mouse plural men women feet fish oxen knives mice possession can be expressed either by the possessive enclitic s also traditionally called a genitive suffix or by the preposition of historically the s possessive has been used for animate nouns whereas the of possessive has been reserved for inanimate nouns today this distinction is less clear and many speakers use s also with inanimates orthographically the possessive s is separated from a singular noun with an apostrophe if the noun is plural formed with s the apostrophe follows the s 249 possessive constructions with s the woman s husband s child with of the child of the husband of the woman nouns can form noun phrases nps where they are the syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as determiners quantifiers conjunctions or adjectives 254 noun phrases can be short such as the man composed only of a determiner and a noun they can also include modifiers such as adjectives e g red tall all and specifiers such as determiners e g the that but they can also tie together several nouns into a single long np using conjunctions such as and or prepositions such as with e g the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinny wife with the spectacles this np uses conjunctions prepositions specifiers and modifiers regardless of length an np functions as a syntactic unit 249 for example the possessive enclitic can in cases which do not lead to ambiguity follow the entire noun phrase as in the president of india s wife where the enclitic follows india and not president the class of determiners is used to specify the noun they precede in terms of definiteness where the marks a definite noun and a or an marks an indefinite one a definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known quantifiers which include one many some and all are used to specify the noun in terms of quantity or number the noun must agree with the number of the determiner e g one man sg but all men pl determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase 255 adjectives english adjectives are words such as good big interesting and canadian that most typically modify nouns denoting characteristics of their referents e g a red car as modifiers they come before the nouns they modify and after determiners 256 english adjectives also function as predicative complements e g the child is happy 257 in modern english adjectives are not inflected so as to agree in form with the noun they modify as in most other indo european languages for example in the phrases the slender boy and many slender girls the adjective slender does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun 258 some adjectives are inflected for degree of comparison with the positive degree unmarked the suffix er marking the comparative and est marking the superlative a small boy the boy is smaller than the girl that boy is the smallest some adjectives have irregular suppletive comparative and superlative forms such as good better and best other adjectives have comparatives formed by periphrastic constructions with the adverb more marking the comparative and most marking the superlative happier or more happy the happiest or most happy 259 there is some variation among speakers regarding which adjectives use inflected or periphrastic comparison and some studies have shown a tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more common at the expense of the inflected form 260 determiners english determiners are words such as the each many some and which occurring most typically in noun phrases before the head nouns and any modifiers and marking the noun phrase as definite or indefinite 261 they often agree with the noun in number they do not typically inflect for degree of comparison pronouns case and person english pronouns conserve many traits of case and gender inflection the personal pronouns retain a difference between subjective and objective case in most persons i me he him she her we us they them as well as an animateness distinction in the third person singular distinguishing it from the three sets of animate third person singular pronouns and an optional gender distinction in the animate third person singular distinguishing between feminine she her epicene they them and masculine he him 262 263 the subjective case corresponds to the old english nominative case and the objective case is used in the sense both of the previous accusative case for a patient or direct object of a transitive verb and of the old english dative case for a recipient or indirect object of a transitive verb 264 265 the subjective is used when the pronoun is the subject of a finite clause otherwise the objective is used 266 while grammarians such as henry sweet 267 and otto jespersen 268 noted that the english cases did not correspond to the traditional latin based system some contemporary grammars including the cambridge grammar of the english language retain traditional nominative and accusative labels for the cases 269 possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent forms the dependent form functions as a determiner specifying a noun as in my chair while the independent form can stand alone as if it were a noun e g the chair is mine 270 grammatical person in english no longer distinguishes between formal and informal pronouns of address with the second person singular familiar pronoun thou that previously existed in the language having fallen almost entirely out of use by the 18th century 271 both the second and third persons share pronouns between the plural and singular plural and singular are always identical you your yours in the second person except in the reflexive form yourself yourselves in most dialects some dialects have introduced innovative second person plural pronouns such as y all found in southern american english and african american vernacular english youse found in australian english or ye in hiberno english in the third person the they them series of pronouns they them their theirs themselves are used in both plural and singular and are the only pronouns available for the plural in the singular the they them series sometimes with the addition of the singular specific reflexive form themself serve as a gender neutral set of pronouns these pronouns are becoming more accepted especially as part of lgbtq culture 262 272 273 english personal pronouns person subjective case objective case dependent possessive independent possessive reflexive 1st singular i me my mine myself 2nd singular you you your yours yourself 3rd singular he she it they him her it them his her its their his hers its theirs himself herself itself themself themselves 1st plural we us our ours ourselves 2nd plural you you your yours yourselves 3rd plural they them their theirs themselves pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or anaphorically a deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation for example the pronoun i identifies the speaker and the pronoun you the addressee anaphoric pronouns such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience for example in the sentence i already told you that the reflexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is identical to the subject of a phrase e g he sent it to himself or she braced herself for impact 274 prepositions prepositional phrases pp are phrases composed of a preposition and one or more nouns e g with the dog for my friend to school in england 275 english prepositions have a wide range of uses including describing movement place and other relations between entities as well as functions that are syntactic in nature like introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments of verbs 275 for example in the phrase i gave it to him the preposition to marks the indirect object of the verb to give traditionally words were only considered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun they preceded for example causing the pronouns to use the objective rather than subjective form with her to me for us but some contemporary grammars no longer consider government of case to be the defining feature of the class of prepositions rather defining prepositions as words that can function as the heads of prepositional phrases 276 verbs and verb phrases english verbs are inflected for tense and aspect and marked for agreement with a third person present singular subject only the copula verb to be is still inflected for agreement with the plural and first and second person subjects 259 auxiliary verbs such as have and be are paired with verbs in the infinitive past or progressive forms they form complex tenses aspects and moods auxiliary verbs differ from other verbs in that they can be followed by the negation and in that they can occur as the first constituent in a question sentence 277 278 most verbs have six inflectional forms the primary forms are a plain present a third person singular present and a preterite past form the secondary forms are a plain form used for the infinitive a gerund participle and a past participle 279 the verb to be which among other uses in english functions as the primary auxiliary verb indicating the imperfective aspect e g i am going as well as the copula 280 is the only verb to retain some of its original conjugation and takes different inflectional forms depending on the subject the first person present form is am the third person singular form is is and the form are is used in the second person singular and all three plurals the only verb past participle is been and its gerund participle is being 281 english inflectional forms inflection strong regular plain present take love 3rd person sg present takes loves preterite took loved plain infinitive take love gerund participle taking loving past participle taken loved tense aspect and mood english has two primary tenses past preterite and non past the preterite is inflected by using the preterite form of the verb which for the regular verbs includes the suffix ed and for the strong verbs either the suffix t or a change in the stem vowel the non past form is unmarked except in the third person singular which takes the suffix s 277 present preterite first person i run i ran second person you run you ran third person john runs john ran english does not have future verb forms 282 the future tense is expressed periphrastically with one of the auxiliary verbs will or shall 283 many varieties also use a near future constructed with the phrasal verb be going to going to future 284 future first person i will run second person you will run third person john will run further aspectual distinctions are shown by auxiliary verbs primarily have and be which show the contrast between a perfect and non perfect past tense i have run vs i was running and compound tenses such as preterite perfect i had been running and present perfect i have been running 285 for the expression of mood english uses a number of modal auxiliaries such as can may will shall and the past tense forms could might would should there are also subjunctive and imperative moods both based on the plain form of the verb i e without the third person singular s for use in subordinate clauses e g subjunctive it is important that he run every day imperative run 283 an infinitive form that uses the plain form of the verb and the preposition to is used for verbal clauses that are syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause finite verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb in the present or preterite form in clauses with auxiliary verbs they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated as a subordinate clause 286 for example he has to go where only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the main verb to go is in the infinitive or in a complement clause such as i saw him leave where the main verb is see which is in a preterite form and leave is in the infinitive phrasal verbs english also makes frequent use of constructions traditionally called phrasal verbs verb phrases that are made up of a verb root and a preposition or particle that follows the verb the phrase then functions as a single predicate in terms of intonation the preposition is fused to the verb but in writing it is written as a separate word examples of phrasal verbs are to get up to ask out to get together and to put up with the phrasal verb frequently has a highly idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted than what can be simply extrapolated from the combination of verb and preposition complement e g lay off meaning terminate someone s employment 287 some grammarians do not consider this type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and hence refrain from using the term phrasal verb instead they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement e g he woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains are syntactically equivalent 288 adverbs the function of adverbs is to modify the action or event described by the verb by providing additional information about the manner in which it occurs 249 many english adverbs are derived from adjectives by appending the suffix ly for example in the phrase the woman walked quickly the adverb quickly is derived from the adjective quick some commonly used adjectives have irregular adverbial forms such as good which has the adverbial form well 289 syntax in the english sentence the cat sat on the mat the subject is the cat a noun phrase the verb is sat and on the mat is a prepositional phrase composed of a noun phrase the mat headed by the preposition on modern english syntax is moderately analytic 290 it has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as r...
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