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zed atom since b e k displaystyle b_ e k is usually larger than δ b e displaystyle delta b_ e q β b displaystyle q_ beta _ b is usually larger than q β c displaystyle q_ beta _ c first category nuclides with negative q β c value but positive q β b value edit following the discussion above it is possible that a nuclide stable to β decay q β c displaystyle q_ beta _ c being negative can be unstable q β b displaystyle q_ beta _ b being positive when fully or highly ionized theoretically this happens for the following 12 nuclides 148 eu 163 dy 193 ir 194 au 202 tl 205 tl 213 po 215 at 222 rn n 1 244 pu 243 am and 246 bk 57 54 n 2 the following table lists theoretically possible bound state β transitions that are impossible for neutral atoms the q β c displaystyle q_ beta _ c values are taken from ame2020 55 while the electron binding energies are taken from nist 58 see ran wang 2026 for more details 54 please note that the ionization energies for highly ionized atoms are theoretical parent daughter δ b e displaystyle delta b_ e kev b e k displaystyle b_ e k kev transition q β c displaystyle q_ beta _ c kev q β b displaystyle q_ beta _ b kev 148 eu 148 gd 11 6 59 066 5 0 displaystyle 5 to 0 28 0 19 5 163 dy 163 ho 12 5 65 137 5 2 7 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 7 2 2 8 49 8 193 ir 193 pt 15 9 90 660 3 2 1 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 1 2 56 6 18 2 3 2 3 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 3 2 58 2 16 6 3 2 5 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 5 2 70 9 3 9 194 au 194 hg 16 8 95 898 1 0 displaystyle 1 to 0 27 9 51 2 202 tl 202 pb 17 3 101 337 2 0 displaystyle 2 to 0 39 4 44 6 205 tl 205 pb 17 3 101 337 1 2 5 2 displaystyle 1 2 to 5 2 50 6 33 4 1 2 1 2 displaystyle 1 2 to 1 2 52 9 31 1 213 po 213 at 18 4 109 887 9 2 9 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 9 2 74 0 17 5 215 at 215 rn 18 7 112 842 9 2 9 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 9 2 88 0 6 1 222 rn 222 fr 19 2 115 858 0 2 displaystyle 0 to 2 6 0 90 7 244 pu 244 am 22 142 154 0 6 displaystyle 0 to 6 73 1 47 1 243 am 243 cm 24 145 740 5 2 5 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 5 2 6 9 114 8 5 2 7 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 7 2 48 9 72 8 5 2 1 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 1 2 94 3 27 4 5 2 9 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 9 2 100 9 20 8 5 2 3 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 3 2 100 9 20 8 5 2 7 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 7 2 120 9 0 8 246 bk 246 cf 23 153 124 2 0 displaystyle 2 to 0 120 2 9 9 second category nuclides with positive low q β c value and much higher q β b value edit some other nuclides satisfy q β c 0 displaystyle q_ beta _ c 0 so are theoretically β unstable but their q β c displaystyle q_ beta _ c value are very low so that fully ionizing greatly accelerates β decay since the q β b displaystyle q_ beta _ b value is much higher neutral 187 re does undergo β decay with half life 4 12 10 10 years 59 but bosch et al also at darmstadt observed that for fully ionized 187 re 75 this is shortened to only 32 9 years 60 the increase in q value of beta decay typically means that additional decay paths to some excited states of the daughter nucleus become energetically allowed 54 this is exactly what happens in the case of 187 re in addition to the large increase in decay energy 187 re 75 is energetically allowed to undergo β decay to the first excited state in 187 os 75 a process energetically disallowed for natural 187 re n 3 similarly neutral 241 pu undergoes β decay with a half life of 14 3 years but in its fully ionized state the beta decay half life of 241 pu 94 decreases to 4 2 days 61 for comparison the variation of decay rates of other nuclear processes due to chemical environment is less than 1 theoretical examples of nuclides in this category with q β c 200 k e v displaystyle q_ beta _ c 200 mathrm kev include 187 re 194 os 210 pb 212 at 227 ac 228 ra 241 pu 247 cm 250 cm and 249 bk 54 the following table lists theoretically possible bound state β transitions for these nuclides among which some transitions are impossible for neutral atoms parent daughter δ b e displaystyle delta b_ e kev b e k displaystyle b_ e k kev transition q β c displaystyle q_ beta _ c kev q β b displaystyle q_ beta _ b kev 187 re 187 os 15 2 85 614 5 2 1 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 1 2 2 5 72 9 5 2 3 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 3 2 7 3 63 1 194 os 194 ir 15 6 88 114 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 96 6 169 1 0 0 displaystyle 0 to 0 53 5 126 0 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 14 3 86 8 0 2 displaystyle 0 to 2 12 3 84 8 0 2 displaystyle 0 to 2 15 6 56 9 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 42 1 30 4 0 0 displaystyle 0 to 0 47 0 25 5 0 4 displaystyle 0 to 4 50 5 22 0 0 3 displaystyle 0 to 3 52 3 20 2 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 64 4 8 1 0 5 displaystyle 0 to 5 64 9 7 6 210 pb 210 bi 17 6 104 133 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 63 5 150 0 0 0 displaystyle 0 to 0 17 0 103 5 212 at 212 rn 18 7 112 842 1 0 displaystyle 1 to 0 30 9 125 0 227 ac 227 th n 4 20 125 250 3 2 1 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 1 2 44 8 150 1 3 2 5 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 5 2 35 5 140 8 3 2 3 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 3 2 20 4 125 7 3 2 3 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 3 2 6 9 112 2 3 2 7 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 7 2 28 9 76 4 3 2 9 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 9 2 31 4 73 9 3 2 3 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 3 2 32 8 72 5 3 2 3 2 5 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 3 2 5 2 54 4 50 9 3 2 3 2 5 2 displaystyle 3 2 to 3 2 5 2 82 5 22 8 228 ra 228 ac 20 122 063 0 3 displaystyle 0 to 3 45 5 147 6 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 39 2 141 3 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 38 8 140 9 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 25 3 127 4 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 12 4 114 5 241 pu 241 am 22 142 154 5 2 5 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 5 2 20 8 141 0 5 2 7 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 7 2 20 4 99 8 5 2 9 2 displaystyle 5 2 to 9 2 72 9 47 3 247 cm 247 bk 22 149 398 9 2 3 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 3 2 44 0 171 4 9 2 5 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 5 2 14 1 141 5 9 2 7 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 7 2 3 2 130 6 9 2 7 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 7 2 27 6 99 8 9 2 9 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 9 2 38 8 88 6 9 2 9 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 9 2 81 5 45 9 9 2 11 2 displaystyle 9 2 to 11 2 93 0 34 4 250 cm 250 bk 22 149 398 0 2 displaystyle 0 to 2 38 0 165 4 0 3 displaystyle 0 to 3 3 5 130 9 0 4 displaystyle 0 to 4 2 4 129 8 0 5 displaystyle 0 to 5 40 3 87 1 0 4 displaystyle 0 to 4 42 3 85 1 0 7 displaystyle 0 to 7 48 0 79 4 0 5 displaystyle 0 to 5 59 5 67 9 0 1 displaystyle 0 to 1 65 8 61 6 0 3 displaystyle 0 to 3 77 5 49 9 0 2 displaystyle 0 to 2 87 0 40 4 0 6 displaystyle 0 to 6 92 5 34 9 0 5 displaystyle 0 to 5 99 3 28 1 0 2 displaystyle 0 to 2 108 4 19 0 0 4 displaystyle 0 to 4 110 6 16 8 0 8 displaystyle 0 to 8 118 0 9 4 0 3 displaystyle 0 to 3 119 4 8 0 249 bk 249 cf 23 153 124 7 2 9 2 displaystyle 7 2 to 9 2 123 6 253 7 7 2 11 2 displaystyle 7 2 to 11 2 61 1 191 2 7 2 13 2 displaystyle 7 2 to 13 2 12 6 117 5 7 2 5 2 displaystyle 7 2 to 5 2 21 4 108 7 7 2 7 2 displaystyle 7 2 to 7 2 64 4 65 7 7 2 15 2 displaystyle 7 2 to 15 2 98 1 32 0 7 2 9 2 displaystyle 7 2 to 9 2 119 5 10 6 double beta decay edit main article double beta decay some nuclei can undergo double beta decay 2β where the charge of the nucleus changes by two units double beta decay is difficult to study as it has an extremely long half life in nuclei for which both β decay and 2β are possible the rarer 2β process is effectively impossible to observe however in nuclei where β decay is forbidden but 2β is allowed the process can be seen and a half life measured 62 thus 2β is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei like single beta decay double beta decay does not change a thus at least one of the nuclides with some given a has to be stable with regard to both single and double beta decay ordinary 2β results in the emission of two electrons and two antineutrinos if neutrinos are majorana particles i e they are their own antiparticles then a decay known as neutrinoless double beta decay will occur most neutrino physicists believe that neutrinoless 2β has never been observed 62 see also edit common beta emitters neutrino betavoltaics particle radiation radionuclide tritium illumination a form of fluorescent lighting powered by beta decay pandemonium effect total absorption spectroscopy notes edit current mass determinations cannot decisively determine whether 222 rn is energetically possible to undergo β decay the decay energy given in ame2020 is 6 8 kev 55 56 but in any case its q β b displaystyle q_ beta _ b value is much higher than its q β c displaystyle q_ beta _ c value and so it is predicted that β will be greatly accelerated for fully ionized 222 rn 86 57 see the next subsection bound state beta decays for 148 eu and 244 pu involve fifth forbidden transitions so they should be negligible 54 note also that the decay of bare 187 re is dominated by the nonunique transition to the first excited state of 187 os since the decay to the ground state has a much smaller matrix element 60 a level of 227 th whose existence of uncertain due to inconsistent measurements of energy 86 81 kev from alpha decay of 231 u and 81 94 kev from electron capture of 227 pa is omitted in the table the 149 99 kev level is also omitted since q β b displaystyle q_ beta _ b would be too close to zero to have its sign determined as the error margin would be too large references edit 1 2 3 4 5 konya j 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