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egorically our subdivisions of the spectrum are arbitrary learned and vary across cultures and languages but berlin kay 1969 suggested that this was not so not only do most cultures and languages subdivide and name the color spectrum the same way but even for those who don t the regions of compression and separation are the same 10 we all see blues as more alike and greens as more alike with a fuzzy boundary in between whether or not we have named the difference this view has been challenged in a review article by regier and kay 2009 who discuss a distinction between the questions 1 do color terms affect color perception and 2 are color categories determined by largely arbitrary linguistic convention they report evidence that linguistic categories stored in the left hemisphere of the brain for most people do affect categorical perception but primarily in the right visual field and that this effect is eliminated with a concurrent verbal interference task 11 universalism in contrasts to the sapir whorf hypothesis posits that perceptual categories are innate and are unaffected by the language that one speaks 12 support edit support of the sapir whorf hypothesis describes instances in which speakers of one language demonstrate categorical perception in a way that is different from speakers of another language examples of such evidence are provided below regier and kay 2009 reported evidence that linguistic categories affect categorical perception primarily in the right visual field 13 the right visual field is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain which also controls language faculties davidoff 2001 presented evidence that in color discrimination tasks native english speakers discriminated more easily between color stimuli across a determined blue green boundary than within the same side but did not show categorical perception when given the same task with berinmo nol and wor berinmo speakers performed oppositely 14 a popular theory in current research is weak whorfianism which is the theory that although there is a strong universal component to perception cultural differences still have an impact for example a 1998 study found that while there was evidence of universal perception of color between speakers of setswana and english there were also marked differences between the two language groups 15 evolved categorical perception edit the signature of categorical perception cp is within category compression and or between category separation the size of the cp effect is merely a scaling factor it is this compression separation accordion effect that is cp s distinctive feature in this respect the weaker cp effect for vowels whose motor production is continuous rather than categorical but whose perception is by this criterion categorical is every bit as much of a cp effect as the ba pa and ba da effects but as with colors it looks as if the effect is an innate one our sensory category detectors for both color and speech sounds are born already biased by evolution our perceived color and speech sound spectrum is already warped with these compression separations learned categorical perception edit the lane lawrence demonstrations lately replicated and extended by goldstone 1994 showed that cp can be induced by learning alone 16 there are also the countless categories cataloged in our dictionaries that according to categorical perception are unlikely to be inborn nativist theorists such as fodor 1983 have sometimes seemed to suggest that all of our categories are inborn 17 there are recent demonstrations that although the primary color and speech categories may be inborn their boundaries can be modified or even lost as a result of learning and weaker secondary boundaries can be generated by learning alone 18 in the case of innate cp our categorically biased sensory detectors pick out their prepared color and speech sound categories far more readily and reliably than if our perception had been continuous learning is a cognitive process that results in a relatively permanent change in behavior learning can influence perceptual processing 19 learning influences perceptual processing by altering the way in which an individual perceives a given stimulus based on prior experience or knowledge this means that the way something is perceived is changed by how it was seen observed or experienced before the effects of learning can be studied in categorical perception by looking at the processes involved 20 learned categorical perception can be divided into different processes through some comparisons the processes can be divided into between category and within category groups of comparison 21 between category groups are those that compare between two separate sets of objects within category groups are those that compare within one set of objects between subjects comparisons lead to a categorical expansion effect a categorical expansion occurs when the classifications and boundaries for the category become broader encompassing a larger set of objects in other words a categorical expansion is when the edge lines for defining a category become wider within subjects comparisons lead to a categorical compression effect a categorical compression effect corresponds to the narrowing of category boundaries to include a smaller set of objects the edge lines are closer together 21 therefore between category groups lead to less rigid group definitions whereas within category groups lead to more rigid definitions another method of comparison is to look at both supervised and unsupervised group comparisons supervised groups are those for which categories have been provided meaning that the category has been defined previously or given a label unsupervised groups are groups for which categories are created meaning that the categories will be defined as needed and are not labeled 22 in studying learned categorical perception themes are important learning categories is influenced by the presence of themes themes increase quality of learning this is seen especially in cases where the existing themes are opposite 22 in learned categorical perception themes serve as cues for different categories they assist in designating what to look for when placing objects into their categories for example when perceiving shapes angles are a theme the number of angles and their size provide more information about the shape and cue different categories three angles would cue a triangle whereas four might cue a rectangle or a square opposite to the theme of angles would be the theme of circularity the stark contrast between the sharp contour of an angle and the round curvature of a circle make it easier to learn similar to themes labels are also important to learned categorical perception 21 labels are noun like titles that can encourage categorical processing with a focus on similarities 21 the strength of a label can be determined by three factors analysis of affective or emotional strength permeability the ability to break through of boundaries and a judgment measurement of rigidity of discreteness 21 sources of labels differ and similar to unsupervised supervised categories are either created or already exist 21 22 labels affect perception regardless of their source peers individuals experts cultures and communities can create labels the source doesn t appear to matter as much as mere presence of a label what matters is that there is a label there is a positive correlation between strength of the label combination of three factors and the degree to which the label affects perception meaning that the stronger the label the more the label affects perception 21 cues used in learned categorical perception can foster easier recall and access of prior knowledge in the process of learning and using categories 22 an item in a category can be easier to recall if the category has a cue for the memory as discussed labels and themes both function as cues for categories and therefore aid in the memory of these categories and the features of the objects belonging to them there are several brain structures at work that promote learned categorical perception the areas and structures involved include neurons the prefrontal cortex and the inferotemporal cortex 20 23 neurons in general are linked to all processes in the brain and therefore facilitate learned categorical perception they send the messages between brain areas and facilitate the visual and linguistic processing of the category the prefrontal cortex is involved in forming strong categorical representations 20 the inferotemporal cortex has cells that code for different object categories and are turned along diagnostic category dimensions areas distinguishing category boundaries 20 the learning of categories and categorical perception can be improved through adding verbal labels making themes relevant to the self making more separate categories and by targeting similar features that make it easier to form and define categories learned categorical perception occurs not only in human species but has been demonstrated in animal species as well studies have targeted categorical perception using humans monkeys rodents birds frogs 23 24 these studies have led to numerous discoveries they focus primarily on learning the boundaries of categories where inclusion begins and ends and they support the hypothesis that categorical perception does have a learned component computational and neural models edit computational modeling tijsseling harnad 1997 damper harnad 2000 has shown that many types of category learning mechanisms e g both back propagation and competitive networks display cp like effects 25 26 in back propagation nets the hidden unit activation patterns that represent an input build up within category compression and between category separation as they learn other kinds of nets display similar effects cp seems to be a means to an end inputs that differ among themselves are compressed onto similar internal representations if they must all generate the same output and they become more separate if they must generate different outputs the network s bias is what filters inputs onto their correct output category the nets accomplish this by selectively detecting after much trial and error guided by error correcting feedback the invariant features that are shared by the members of the same category and that reliably distinguish them from members of different categories the nets learn to ignore all other variation as irrelevant to the categorization brain basis edit neural data provide correlates of cp and of learning 27 differences between event related potentials recorded from the brain have been found to be correlated with differences in the perceived category of the stimulus viewed by the subject neural imaging studies have shown that these effects are localized and even lateralized to certain brain regions in subjects who have successfully learned the category and are absent in subjects who have not 28 29 categorical perception is identified with the left prefrontal cortex with this showing such perception for speech units while this is not by posterior areas earlier in their processing such as areas in the left superior temporal gyrus 30 language induced edit both innate and learned cp are sensorimotor effects the compression separation biases are sensorimotor biases and presumably had sensorimotor origins whether during the sensorimotor life history of the organism in the case of learned cp or the sensorimotor life history of the species in the case of innate cp the neural net i o models are also compatible with this fact their i o biases derive from their i o history but when we look at our repertoire of categories in a dictionary it is highly unlikely that many of them had a direct sensorimotor history during our lifetimes and even less likely in our ancestors lifetimes how many of us have seen a unicorn in real life we have seen pictures of them but what had those who first drew those pictures seen and what about categories i cannot draw or see or taste or touch what about the most abstract categories such as goodness and truth some of our categories must originate from another source than direct sensorimotor experience and here we return to language and the whorf hypothesis can categories and their accompanying cp be acquired through language alone again there are some neural net simulation results suggesting that once a set of category names has been grounded through direct sensorimotor experience they can be combined into boolean combinations man male human and into still higher order combinations bachelor unmarried man which not only pick out the more abstract higher order categories much the way the direct sensorimotor detectors do but also inherit their cp effects as well as generating some of their own bachelor inherits the compression separation of unmarried and man and adds a layer of separation compression of its own 31 32 these language induced cp effects remain to be directly demonstrated in human subjects so far only learned and innate sensorimotor cp have been demonstrated 33 34 the latter shows the whorfian power of naming and categorization in warping our perception of the world that is enough to rehabilitate the whorf hypothesis from its apparent failure on color terms and perhaps also from its apparent failure on eskimo snow terms 35 but to show that it is a full blown language effect and not merely a vocabulary effect it will have to be shown that our perception of the world can also be warped not just by how things are named but by what we are told about them emotion edit emotions are an important characteristic of the human species an emotion is an abstract concept that is most easily observed by looking at facial expressions emotions and their relation to categorical perception are often studied using facial expressions 36 37 38 39 40 faces contain a large amount of valuable information 38 emotions are divided into categories because they are discrete from one another each emotion entails a separate and distinct set of reactions consequences and expressions the feeling and expression of emotions is a natural occurrence and it is actually a universal occurrence for some emotions there are six basic emotions that are considered universal to the human species across age gender race country and culture and that are considered to be categorically distinct these six basic emotions are happiness disgust sadness surprise anger and fear 39 according to the discrete emotions approach people experience one emotion and not others rather than a blend 39 categorical perception of emotional facial expressions does not require lexical categories 39 of these six emotions happiness is the most easily identified the perception of emotions using facial expressions reveals slight gender differences 36 based on the definition and boundaries essentially the edge line where one emotion ends and a subsequent emoti...
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