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i vayu stuti tamil literature athichudi eighteen greater texts eighteen lesser texts five great epics iraiyanar akapporul kamba ramayanam kural naalayira divya prabandham thiruvilaiyadal puranam tirumurai tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai tiruppukal vinayagar agaval other texts hindu culture and society society caste varna brahmin kshatriya vaishya shudra jāti dalit adivasi untouchability by region india nepal bali united states dasa dvija gotra kayastha hindu art bhagavata mela bharatanatyam bommalattam carnatic music hindu iconography kai silambattam kalaripayattu kavadi aattam kathak kathakali kolattam koothu kuchipudi manipuri mayilattam mohiniyattam nritta nritya odissi pandav lila rasa sattriya yakshagana yantra hindu architecture hindu temple architecture talamana vastu shastra hindu music alankāra raga sangita shruti svara tala vadya food and diet jhatka mitahara sattvic vrata time keeping practices calendar panchangam shaka era units of time vikram samvat other society related topics discrimination persecution nationalism organisations reform movements other topics hinduism by country balinese hinduism caribbean shaktism greater india hinduism other religions hinduism and jainism and buddhism and sikhism and judaism and christianity and islam glossary outline hinduism portal v t e the epic puranic chronology is a timeline of hindu mythology based on the itihasa the sanskrit epics that is the mahabharata and the ramayana and the puranas these texts have an authoritative status in indian tradition and narrate cosmogeny royal genealogies myths and legendary events the central dates here are the bharata war and the start of the kali yuga these texts often discuss very long lengths of time such as the widespread statement that vaivasvata manu lived 28 yuga cycles before the writer s time which if the usual yuga cycle of 4 320 000 years is meant is 120 million years 1 2 3 there are many possible variations of the timeline because there are many of these texts and many different manuscripts of some individual texts which sometimes contradict each other about what happened when and the lengths of time between them although some events are fairly universal 4 5 western historians usually regard the epic puranic chronology as partly mythical though containing elements of fact in particular the prevailing indo aryan migration theory based on archaeological linguistic and genetic evidence is that the aryans entered india from central asia some time after 2000 bc along with horses and the precursor of the sanskrit language meaning that most of the events in the epics and puranas could not have taken place earlier than this this contradicts the epics and puranas according to which many of the events that they describe took place much earlier than this and there have always been aryans in india among indian authors on the other hand the historical accuracy of these traditions is a subject of lively and sometimes politically charged debate 6 the epic puranic chronology is referred to by proponents of the indigenous aryans theory to propose an earlier dating of the vedic period and the spread of the indo european languages out of india arguing that the indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the sindhu sarasvati valley traditions 7000 bce to 8000 bce 7 itihasa purana edit main article itihasa purana the mahabharata and the ramayana are the two major sanskrit epics of ancient india 8 together they form the hindu itihasa 9 the mahābhārata narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the bharata war and the fates of the kaurava and the pāṇḍava princes and their successors it also contains philosophical and devotional material such as a discussion of the four goals of life or purusharthas 12 161 the bulk of the mahabharata was probably compiled between the 3rd century bce and the 3rd century ce with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 bce 10 11 the ramayana narrates the life of rama the legendary prince of the kosala kingdom various recent scholars estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 4th centuries bce with later stages extending up to the 3rd century ce 12 the puranas literally ancient old 13 is a vast genre of indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly legends and other traditional lore 14 composed in the first millennium ce 15 note 1 the hindu puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries 4 gavin flood connects the rise of the written purana historically with the rise of devotional cults centering upon a particular deity in the gupta era the puranic corpus is a complex body of material that advance the views of various competing sampradayas 16 the content is highly inconsistent across the puranas and each purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent 4 the mahabharata ramayana and the puranas contain genealogies of kings 17 which are used for the traditional chronology of india s ancient history ludo rocher in his book the puranas 1986 provides a long list of chronological calculations based on puranic lists with a warning that they are often highly imaginative 18 chronology edit cyclic time and yugas edit main article yuga cycle the puranas are oriented at a cyclical understanding of time they contain stories about the creation and destruction of the world and the yugas ages 19 there are four yugas in one cycle satya yuga a time of truth and righteousness treta yuga dvapara yuga kali yuga a time of darkness and non virtue according to the manusmriti c 2nd ce 20 one of the earliest known texts describing the yugas the length of each yuga is 4800 3600 2400 and 1200 years of the gods respectively giving a total of 12 000 divine years to complete one cycle for human years they are multiplied by 360 giving 1 728 000 1 296 000 864 000 and 432 000 years respectively giving a total of 4 320 000 human years these four yugas have a length ratio of 4 3 2 1 21 the bhagavata purana 3 11 18 20 c 500 1000 ce gives a matching description of the yuga lengths in divine years the kali yuga is the present yuga according to puranic sources krishna s departure marks the end of dvapara yuga and the start of kali yuga note 2 which is dated to 17 18 february 3102 bce 22 23 twenty years after the bharata war 24 these very long periods of time obviously present a problem for attempts to square the texts with archaeological evidence as some characters are described as living in treta yuga or earlier putting them before modern humans evolved the word yuga sometimes seems to have been used for other lengths of time such as a generation 25 a five year cycle starting with the conjunction of the sun and moon in the autumnal equinox 26 or periods of 4800 3600 2400 and 1200 human years 26 some authors have proposed that the accounts in question were originally referring to one of these shorter yugas and confusion occurred later 27 genealogies edit the epics and puranas also contain many extensive genealogies of monarchs and sometimes of other people such as priests and scholars which provides some idea of what happened when sometimes the timelines suggested by these are very different from those suggested by other information in the texts such as references to when in the yuga cycle events took place an example is the date of the bharata war as discussed below there are cases where the later sections of the puranic genealogies are known to contradict other historical texts or each other 28 pre bharata war kings and avatars edit in traditional hindu astronomy seven stars of ursa major are identified with the names of the saptarishis the puranas the ramayana and the mahabharata contain lists of kings and genealogies 17 from which the traditional chronology of india s ancient history are derived 29 megasthenes the greek ambassador to the maurya court at patna at c 300 bce reported to have heard of a traditional list of 153 kings that covered 6042 years beyond the traditional beginning of the kali yuga in 3102 bce 30 the royal lists are based on sūta bardic traditions and are derived from lists which were orally transmitted and constantly reshaped 30 vaivasvata manu edit the first king is vaivasvata manu the seventh and current manu of the fourteen manus of the current kalpa the progenitor of humanity according to the puranas he is the son of vivasvat also known as surya the sun god and his wife saranyu he is also known as satyavrata and shraddhadeva vaivasvata manu had seventy children including ila and ikshvaku the progenitors of the lunar and solar dynasties of the kshatriyas which play a prominent role in the origin stories of the royal families of the vedic period 31 the mahabharata states that it is of manu that all men including brahmanas kshatriyas vaishyas sudras and others have been descended 32 note 3 tentative chronology edit see also dashavatara the puranas have been used by some to give a tentative overview of indian history prior to the bharata war 18 gulshan 1940 dates the start of the reign of manu vaivasvata at 7350 bce 18 the puranas give 95 kings in the ikshvaku dynasty between shraddhadeva manu aka manu vaivasvata the progenitor of humanity and the bharata war 33 7 dating the bharata war at 1400 bce a d pusalkar 1962 uses this list to give the following chronology 33 pre flood tradition and the dawn of history the great flood and manu vaivasvata the period of king yayati c 3000 2750 bce the period of king mandhatri c 2750 2550 bce the period of parashurama the sixth avatar of vishnu c 2550 2350 bce the period of rama the seventh avatar of vishnu c 2350 1750 bce the period of krishna the eighth avatar of vishnu c 1950 1400 bce the bharata war c 1400 bce puranic chronology a new theory of ancient indian chronology 34 bharata war edit main article kurukshetra war popular tradition holds that the bharata war marks the transition to kali yuga the mathematician aryabhata 6th century calculated the kali yuga epoch based on planetary conjunctions as 18 february 3102 bc this date has become widespread in indian tradition some sources mark this as the disappearance of krishna from the earth 35 the aihole inscription of pulikeshi ii dated to shaka 556 634 ad claims that 3735 years have elapsed since the bharata battle putting the date of the bharata war at 3101 bc 36 37 38 another traditional school of astronomers and historians represented by vriddha garga varahamihira author of the brihat samhita and kalhana author of the rajatarangini place the war 653 years after the kali yuga epoch corresponding to 2449 bc 39 puranic genealogies give a different date saying that the war took place about 1 000 years before the beginning of the nanda dynasty leading to a date of about 1400 bc 40 f e pargiter comparing various different puranas suggested that the original number was 1 500 which was wrongly copied in various texts as 1000 1015 or 1050 giving a date of about 1900 bc 41 the historicity of the war is subject to scholarly discussion and dispute 42 43 the existing text of the mahabharata went through many layers of development and mostly belongs to the period between c 500 bc and 400 ad 44 45 within the frame story of the mahabharata the historical kings parikshit and janamejaya are featured significantly as scions of the kuru clan 46 and michael witzel concludes that the general setting of the epic has a historical precedent in iron age vedic india where the kuru kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 bc 46 professor alf hiltebeitel says that the mahabharata is essentially mythological 47 indian historian upinder singh has written that whether a bitter war between the pandavas and the kauravas ever happened cannot be proved or disproved it is possible that there was a small scale conflict transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets some historians and archaeologists have argued that this conflict may have occurred in about 1000 bce 43 despite the inconclusiveness of the data attempts have been made to assign a historical date to the war attempts to date the events using methods of archaeoastronomy have produced depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid 2nd millennium bc 48 vedveer arya author and ma in sanskrit gives the date of 3162 bc by various arguments including interpreting the aihole inscription as using the old shaka era which based on a comparison of eclipses mentioned in inscriptions he argues counts from 583 bc 49 50 p v holey states a date of 13 november 3143 bc using planetary positions and calendar systems 51 verification needed k sadananda based on translation work states that the war started on 22 november 3067 bc citation needed b n achar used planetarium software to argue that the war took place in 3067 bc 52 s balakrishna concluded a date of 2559 bc using consecutive lunar eclipses r n iyengar concluded that out of a range of 501 bc 3250 bc a date of 1478 bc was the best fit for the sequence of eclipses and planetary positions described in the text 53 p r sarkar estimates a date of 1298 bc for the war dieter koch writer on the history of astronomy and astrology dates the war to 1198 bc based on super conjunctions 54 kesheo lakshman daftari one of the members of the calendar reform committee which prepared the indian national calendar holds that the war took place in 1197 bc 55 post bharata war edit the epics and puranas give lists of various dynasties of kings after the war which are sometimes confirmed by other sources and sometimes contradicted by them and sometimes contradict each other 56 the vedic foundation gives the following chronology of ancient india since the time of krishna and the bharata war web 1 note 4 3228 bce descension of krishna note 5 3138 bce the bharata war start of brihadrath dynasty of magadha start of yudhisthir dynasty of hastinapur 3102 bce ascension of krishna start of kali yuga 2139 bce end of brihadratha dynasty 2139 2001 bce pradyota dynasty 2001 1641 bce shaishunaga dynasty 1887 1807 bce gautama buddha note 6 1641 1541 bce nandas note 7 1541 1241 bce maurya empire note 8 1541 1507 bce chandragupta maurya note 9 1507 1479 bce bindusara note 10 1479 1443 bce ashokavardhan 1241 784 bce shunga empire and kanva dynasty 784 328 bce andhra dynasty note 11 328 83 bce gupta empire note 12 328 321 bce chandragupta vijayaditya note 13 326 bce alexander s invasion 321 270 bce ashoka note 14 102 bce 15 ce vikramaditya established vikram era in 57 bce historicity edit archaeological vs traditional interpretations edit the history of india up to and including the times of the buddha with his life generally placed into the 6th or 5th century bce is a subject of a major scholarly debate the vast majority of historians in the western world accept the theory of indo aryan migrations with c 1500 1200 bce dates for t...
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